
Class 
Book. 



3«r 



GopyriglitK ( 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Farm Mechanics 



MACHINERY AND ITS USE TO SAVE 
HAND LABOR ON THE FARM 

Including 

Tools, Shop Work, Driving and Driven 

Machines, Farm Waterworks, Care 

and Repair of Farm Implements 



By 
HERBERT A. SHEARER 

AGRICULTURIST 
Author of "Farm Buildings with Plans and Descriptions' 



ILLUSTRATED WITH THREE 
HUNDRED ORIGINAL DRAWINGS 



CHICAGO 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 

Publishers 






*6 



Copyright 1918 

By Frederick J. Drake & Co. 

Chicago 



■JAN 26 1918 



4i 



£ t 



A481872 



PREFACE 

More mechanical knowledge is required on the farm 
than in any other line of business. If a farmer is not 
mechanically inclined, he is under the necessity of em- 
ploying someone who is. 

Some farms are supplied with a great many handy 
contrivances to save labor. Farmers differ a great deal 
in this respect. Some are natural mechanics, some 
learn how to buy and how to operate the best farm ma- 
chinery, while others are still living in the past. 

Some farmers who make the least pretensions have 
the best machinery and implements. They may not be 
good mechanics, but they have an eye to the value of 
labor saving tools. 

The object of this book is to emphasize the impor- 
tance of mechanics in modern farming ; to fit scores of 
quick-acting machines into the daily routine of farm 
work and thereby lift heavy loads from the shoulders 
of men and women ; to increase the output at less cost 
of hand labor and to improve the soil while producing 
more abundantly than ever before ; to suggest the use 
of suitable machines to manufacture high-priced nutri- 
tious human foods from cheap farm by-products. 

Illustrations are used to explain principles rather 
than to recommend any particular type or pattern of 
machine. 

The old is contrasted with the new and the merits of 
both are expressed. 

THE AUTHOR, 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

The Farm Shop with Tools for Working Wood and Iron 9 

CHAPTER II 
Farm Shop Work 50 

CHAPTER III 

Generating Mechanical Power to Drive Modern Farm 

Machinery 74 

CHAPTER IV 
Driven Machines 100 

CHAPTER V 
Working the Soil 137 

CHAPTER VI 
Handling the Hay Crop 163 

CHAPTER VII 
Farm Conveyances 179 

CHAPTER VIII 

Miscellaneous Farm Conveniences 197 

Index _ 241 



FARM MECHANICS 



CHAPTER I 

THE FARM SHOP WITH TOOLS FOE WORKING WOOD 
AND IRON 

FARM SHOP AND IMPLEMENT HOUSE 

The workshop and shed to hold farm implements 
should look as neat and attractive as the larger build- 
ings. Farm implements are expensive. Farm machin- 
ery is even more so. When such machinery is all prop- 
erly housed and kept in repair the depreciation is esti- 
mated at ten per cent a year. When the machines are 
left to rust and weather in the rain and wind the loss is 
simply ruinous. 

More machinery is required on farms than formerly 
and it costs more. Still it is not a question whether a 
farmer can afford a machine. If he has sufficient work 
for it he knows he cannot afford to get along without 
it and he must have a shed to protect it from the 
weather when not in use. 

In the first place the implement shed should be large 
enough to accommodate all of the farm implements 
and machinery without crowding and it should be well 
built and tight enough to keep out the wind and small 
animals, including chickens and sparrows. 

The perspective and plan shown herewith is twenty- 
four feet in width and sixty feet in length, 

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10 



FARM MECHANICS 




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THE FARM SHOP 



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12 FARM MECHANICS 

The doorways provide headroom sufficient for the 
highest machines, and the width when the double 
doors are opened and the center post removed is nearly 
twenty feet, which is sufficient for a binder in field 
condition or a two-horse spring-tooth rake. 

One end of the building looking toward the house is 
intended for a machine shop to be partitioned off by 
enclosing the first bent. This gives a room twenty feet 
wide by twenty-four feet deep for a blacksmith shop 



Figure 3. — Perspective View of Farm Implement Shed and Workshop. 

and general repair work. The next twenty feet is the 
garage. The machine shop part of the building will be 
arranged according to the mechanical inclination of 
the farmer. 

A real farm repair shop is a rather elaborate me- 
chanical proposition. There is a good brick chimney 
with a hood to carry off the smoke and gases from the 
blacksmith fire and the chimney should have a separate 
flue for a heating stove. Farm repair work is done 
mostly during the winter months when a fire in the 
shop is necessary for comfort and efficiency. A per- 
son cannot work to advantage with cold fingers. Paint 
requires moderate heat to work to advantage. Paint- 



THE FARM SHOP 



13 



ing farm implements is a very important part of repair 
work. 

A good shop arrangement is to have an iron work- 
bench across the shop window in the front or entrance 
end of the building. In the far corner against the back 
wall is a good place for a woodworking bench. It is 
too mussy to have the blacksmith work and the carpen- 
ter work mixed up. 




Figure 4. — Floor Plan of Farm Implement Shed, showing the 
workshop in one end of the building, handy to the implement storage 
room. 



Sometimes it is necessary to bring in a pair of horses 
for shoeing, or to pull the shoes off. For this reason, 
a tie rail bolted to the studding on the side of the shop 
near the entrance is an extra convenience. 

In a hot climate a sliding door is preferable because 
the wind will not slam it shut. In cold climates, hinge 
doors are better with a good sill and threshold to shut 
against to keep out the cold. Sometimes the large door 
contains a small door big enough to step through, but 
not large enough to admit much cold, when it is being 
opened and shut. Likewise a ceiling is needed in a cold 
country, while in warmer sections, a roof is sufficient. 
Farm shops, like other farm buildings, should con- 



14 FARM MECHANICS 

form to the climate, as well as convenience in doing 
the work. A solid concrete floor is a great comfort. 
And it is easily kept clean. 

The perspective and floor plan show the arrange- 
ment of the doors, windows and chimney and the plac- 
ing of the work benches, forge, anvil, toolbench and 
drill press. 

Figures 3 and 4 show the perspective and floor plan 
of a farm shop and implement house 40x16 feet in size, 
which is large enough for some farms. 

SHOP TOOLS 

Good tools are more important on a farm than in a 
city workshop for the reason that a greater variety of 
work is required. 

Measuring Mechanical Work. — In using tools on the 
farm the first rule should be accuracy. It is just as 




Figure 5. — Caliper Rule. A handy slide caliper shop rule is made 
with a slide marked in fractions of inches as shown in the drawing. 
The diameter of a rivet, bolt or other round object may be taken 
instantly. It is not so accurate as calipers for close measurements, 
but it is a practical tool for farm use. 

easy to work to one-sixteenth of an inch as to carelessly 
lay off a piece of work so that the pieces won't go to- 
gether right. 

The handiest measuring tool ever invented is the old- 
fashioned two-foot rule that folds up to six inches in 
length to be carried in the pocket. Such rules to be 
serviceable should be brass bound. The interior mark- 
ing should be notched to sixteenths. The outside mark- 



THE FARM SHOP 



15 



ing may be laid out in eighths. The finer marking on 
the inside is protected by keeping the rule folded 
together when not in use. The coarser marking out- 
side does not suffer so much from wear. Figure 5 
shows a 12-inch rule with a slide caliper jaw. 

In using a two-foot rule to lay off work the forward 
end should contain the small figures so that the work- 
man is counting back on the rule but forward on the 




Figure 6. — Small Pocket Oilstone. Shop oilstone in a box, 100-foot 
measuring tapeline marked in inches, feet and rods. 



work, and he has the end of the rule to scribe from. In 
laying off a 16-foot pole the stick is first marked with 
a knife point, or sharp scratchawl, and try square to 
square one end. The work is then laid off from left 
to right, starting from the left hand 'edge of the 
square mark or first mark. The two-foot rule is laid 
flat on top of the piece of wood. At the front end of 
the rule the wood is marked with a sharp scratchawl 
or the point of a knife blade by pressing the point 
against the end of the rule at the time of marking. In 
moving the rule forward the left end is placed exactly 
over the left edge of the mark, so the new measurement 



16 FARM MECHANICS 

begins at the exact point where the other left off, and 
so on the whole length of the stick. The final mark is 
then made exactly sixteen feet from the first mark. 

In sawing the ends the saw kerf is cut from the waste 
ends of the stick. The saw cuts to the mark but does 
not cut it out. 

In using a rule carelessly a workman may gain one- 
sixteenth of an inch every time he moves the rule, 
which would mean half of an inch in laying off a 16- 
foot pole, which would ruin it for carpenter work. If 
the pole is afterwards used for staking fence posts, he 
would gain one-half inch at each post, or a foot for 
every twenty-four posts, a distance to bother consid- 
erably in estimating acres. It is just as easy to meas- 
ure exactly as it is to measure a little more or a little 
less, and it marks the difference between right and 
wrong. 

WOODWORKING BENCH 

In a farm workshop it is better to separate the wood- 
working department as far as possible from the black- 
smith shop. Working wood accumulates a great deal 
of litter, shavings, blocks, and kindling wood, which 
are in the way in the blacksmith shop, and a spark from 
the anvil might set the shavings afire. 

A woodworking bench, Figure 7, carpenter's bench, 
it is usually called, needs a short leg vise with wide 
jaws. The top of the vise should be flush with the top 
of the bench, so the boards may be worked when lying 
flat on the top of the bench. For the same reason the 
bench dog should lower down flush when not needed 
to hold the end of the board. 

It is customary to make carpenter's benches separate 
from the shop, and large enough to stand alone, so they 
may be moved out doors or into other buildings. 



THE FARM SHOP 



17 




Figure 7. — Carpenter's Bench. A woodworking bench is 16' long, 
3' 6" wide and 32" high. The height, to be particular, should be 
the length of the leg of the man who uses it. Lincoln, when joking 
with Stanton, gave it as his opinion that "a man's legs should be 
just long enough to reach the ground." But that rule is not suffi- 
ciently definite to satisfy carpenters, so they adopted the inside leg 
measurement. They claim that the average carpenter is 5' 10" 
tall and he wears a 32" leg. 




Figure 8. — Carpenter's Trestle, or Saw-Bench. The top piece is 
4x6 and the legs are 2x4. There is sufficient spread of leg to prevent 
it from toppling over, but the legs are not greatly in the way. It is 
heavy enough to stand still while you slide a board along. It is 2 
feet high. 



18 



FARM MECHANICS 



Carpenter benches may be well made, or they may be 
constructed in a hurry. So long as the top is true it 




Figure 9. — Shave Horse. For shaping pieces of hardwood for 
repair work. A good shave horse is about 8' long and the seat end 
is the height of a chair. The head is carved on a hardwood stick 
with three projections to grip different sized pieces to be worked. 






Figure 10. — Compasses, Wooden Clamp and Cutting Pliers. 



makes but little difference how the legs are attached, 
so long as they are strong and enough of them. A car- 
penter bench that is used for all kinds of work must be 



THE FARM SHOP 19 

solid enough to permit hammering, driving nails, etc. 
Usually the top of the bench is straight, true and level 
and it should be kept free from litter and extra tools. 
Good carpenters prefer a tool rack separate from the 
bench. It may stand on the floor or be attached to the 




Figure 11. — Monkey-Wrenches are the handiest of all farm 
wrenches, but they were never intended to hammer with. Two sizes 
are needed — an eight-inch for small nuts and a much larger wrench, 
to open two inches or more, to use when taking the disks off the 
shafts of a disk harrow. A large pipe-wrench to hold the round 
shaft makes a good companion tool for this work. 

wall. Carpenter tools on a farm are not numerous, 
but they should have a regular place, and laborers on 
the farms should be encouraged to keep the tools where 
they belong. 

WOODWORKING TOOLS 

Every farmer has an axe or two, some sort of a 
handsaw and a nail hammer. It is astonishing what 
jobs of repair work a handy farmer will do with such 
a dearth of tools. But it is not necessary to worry 
along without a good repair kit. Tools are cheap 
enough. 

Such woodworking tools as coarse and fine toothed 
hand saws, a good square, a splendid assortment of 
hammers and the different kinds of wrenches, screw 
clamps, boring tools — in fact a complete assortment of 
handy woodworking tools is an absolute necessity on a 
well-managed farm. 



20 



FARM MECHANICS 



The farm kit should contain two sizes of nail ham- 
mers, see Figure 15, one suitable to drive small nails, 
say up to eight penny, and the other for large nails and 
spikes ; a long thin-bladed handsaw, having nine teeth 




Figure 12. — Hand Saw. This pattern, both for cross cut and rip 
saw, has been adopted by all makers of fine saws. Nine teeth to 
the inch is fine enough for most jobs on the farm. 




Figure 13. — Keyhole Saw with point slim enough to start the cut 
from a half-inch auger hole. 




Figure 14. — Bramble Hook for trimming berry bushes and cleaning 
out fence corners. It has a knife-edge with hooked sawteeth. 



to the inch, for sawing boards and planks; a shorter 
handsaw, having ten teeth to the inch, for small work 
and for pruning trees. A pruning saw should cut a 
fine, smooth kerf, so the wound will not collect and hold 
moisture. 



THE FARM SHOP 



21 



Farmers ' handsaws are required to do a great many- 
different kinds of work. For this reason, it is difficult 
to keep them in good working condition, but if both 
saws are jointed, set and filed by a good mechanic once 
or twice a year, they may be kept in usable condition 
the rest of the time by a handy farm workman, unless 
extra building or special work is required. 




Figure 15. — Nail Hammers. Two styles. 
The upper hammer is made with a ball peen 
and a round face. It is tempered to drive 
small nails without slipping and shaped to 
avoid dinging the wood. This hammer 
should weigh 18 or 19 ounces, including the 
handle. The lower hammer is heavier, has 
a flat face and is intended for heavy work 
such as driving spikes and fence staples. 




A long-bladed ripsaw is also very useful, and what 
is commonly termed a keyhole saw finds more use on 
the farm than in a carpenter's shop in town. It is 
necessary frequently to cut holes through partitions, 
floors, etc., and at such times a keyhole saw works in 
just right. 

Handaxes are necessary for roughing certain pieces 
of wood for repair jobs. Two sizes of handaxes for dif- 
ferent kinds of work are very useful, also a wide blade 



22 



FARM MECHANICS 



draw shave, Figure 16, and shave horse, Figure 9. A 
steel square having one 24-inch blade and one 18-inch 
is the best size. Such squares usually are heavy enough 
to remain square after falling off the bench forty or 
fifty times. A good deal depends upon the quality of 
the steel. 





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Figure 17. — Try-Square With Six-Inch Blade. Wood, brass and 
steel are the proper materials for a try-square. A double marking 
gauge for scribing mortises is also shown. 



Steel squares differ in the measuring marks, but the 
kind to buy has one side spaced to sixteenths and the 
other side to tenths or twelfths. The sixteenths inter- 
est farmers generally, so that special attention should 
be given this side of the square. The lumber rule on 
some squares is useful, but the brace rules and mitre 
calculations are not likely to interest farmers. 



THE FARM SHOP 



23 



Screw-drivers should be mostly strong and heavy for 
farm work. Three sizes of handled screw-drivers of 
different lengths and sizes, also two or three brace bit 
screw-drivers are needed. One or two bits may be 
broken or twisted so the assortment is sometimes 
exhausted before the screw is started. 




Figure 18. — Heavy Hand Ax for Use on the Shop Chopping Block. 
A beet topping knife is shown also. 




Figure 19. — Heavy Screwdriver. The strongest and cheapest 
screwdriver is made from a single bar of steel. The wooden handle 
is made in two parts and riveted as shown. 



Pinch bars and claw bars are very useful in a farm 
tool kit. Farm mechanical work consists principally 
in repairing implements, machinery, fences and build- 
ings. Always a worn or broken part must be removed 
before the repair can be made. A pinch bar twenty- 
four inches long, Figure 21, with a cold chisel end, and 
another bar eighteen inches long with a crooked claw 
end, Figure 22, for pulling nails and spikes comes in 



24 



FARM MECHANICS 




Figure 20. — (1) Ratchet Screwdriver. It does rapid work and 
will last a generation if carefully used. (2) Auger-Bit of the Side 
Cutter Type. A full set is needed. They are not for boring into old 
wood. Running once against a nail ruins one of these bits. 



Figure 21. — Handspike. A wooden handspike or pry is about seven 
feet long by 3 inches thick at the prying end. In the North it is 
usually made from a hickory or an ironwood or a dogwood sapling. 
The bark is removed and the handle is worked round and smooth 
on the shave horse. It is better to cut the poles in the winter when 
the sap is in the roots. After the handspikes are finished they 
should be covered deep with straw so they will season slowly to 
prevent checking. 




Figure 22. — Wrecking Bar for pulling nails and to pry broken parts 
from other wreckage. 




Figure 23. — Carpenter's Level. For practical farm work the level 
should be 24" or 30" long. Wood is the most satisfactory material. 
The best levels are made up of different layers of wood glued to- 
gether to prevent warping or twisting. For this reason a good level 
should be carefully laid away in a dry place immediately after using. 



THE FARM SHOP 



25 





Figure 24. — (1) Snips for cutting sheet metal. (2) Carpenter' 
Level, iron stock. 



Figure 25. — Wood-Boring Twist Drill Bit. Twist drills for wood 
have longer points than drills for boring iron. 



Figure' 26. — Pod-Bit. The fastest boring gimlet bits are of this 
pattern. They are made in sizes from %" to %" and are intended 
for boring softwood. 



Figure 27. — Auger-Bits. For smooth boring the lip bits are best. 
The side cutters project beyond the cutting lips to cut the circle 
ahead of the chips. For boring green wood the single-worm clears 
better than the double-worm bit. 



26 



FARM MECHANICS 



very handy. These two bars should be made of the best 
octagon steel, seven-eighths of an inch in diameter. 



v^_ 




Figure 28. — Extension Boring Bits. The cutting lips may be set 
to bore holes from %" to 3" in diameter. They are used mostly in 
softwood. 



Figure 29. — Ship Auger. This shape auger is made with or with- 
out a screw point. It will bore straighter in cross-grained wood 
without a point. 



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Figure 30. — Long Ship Auger. 



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6.6.B. 

Figure 31. — Bridge Auger, 
to stand erect while boring, 
the shank of a ship auger. 



The long handle permits the workman 
The home made handle is welded onto 



A wooden carpenter's level, Figure 23, two feet 
long, with a plumb glass near one end, is the most sat- 
isfactory farm level, an instrument that is needed a 
great many times during the year. 



THE FARM SHOP 



27 



Good brace bits are scarce on farms. They are not 
expensive, but farmers are careless about bits and 
braces. Two sizes of braces are needed, a small brace 
for small pod bits and twist drills, and a large ratchet 
brace with a 6-inch crank radius for turning larger 
bits, 




Figure 32. — Carpenter's Jointer. 




Figure 33. 



-Fore-Plane. This style plane is preferred to a regular 
jointer for most farm work. 



Twist drill bits will bore both wood and iron, and 
they are not expensive up to three-eighths inch or one- 
half inch. But for larger sizes from one-half inch to 
one inch the finest lip wood boring bits will give the 
best satisfaction. Extension bits are used for boring 
holes larger than one inch. Two extension bits are bet- 
ter than one bit with two lip cutters. They will bore 
holes in soft wood in sizes from one inch to three inches. 



28 



FARM MECHANICS 



Other cutting tools such as jack plane jointer and 
smoothing plane, also an assortment of chisels, belong 
to the farm equipment. 




Figure 34. — Tool Box of Socket Chisels and Gouges. The chisels 
are sized from y 2 " to 2" in width. The two chisels to the right 
show different patterns. 

All cutting tools should be of the best design and the 
best steel. If they are properly used and taken care of, 
the different jobs of repair work can be handled 
quickly and to great advantage. 



FARM GRINDSTONE 

A grindstone may be gritty without being coarse so 
it will bite the steel easily and cut it away quickly. A 
good stone is a very satisfactory farm implement, but 
a greasy stone is a perpetual nuisance. 

There are grindstones with frames too light. The 
competition to manufacture and sell a grindstone for 



THE FARM SHOP 



farm use at the cheapest possible price has resulted in 
turning out thousands of grindstone frames that pos- 
sess very little stability. 

Grindstones should be kept under cover ; the best 
stone will be injured by leaving it in the hot sun. The 




Figure 35. — Grindstone. The speed of a grindstone varies with 
the diameter of the stone. It should turn just fast enough to keep 
a flow of water on the upper face surface. If the stone turns too 
slow the water will run down ; if too fast, it will fly off. 

sun draws the moisture out of the upper side and 
leaves the lower side damp and soft so that in use the 
stone soon becomes flat sided. The wet side freezes in 
winter, which is a disintegrating process. 

The best stones, with good care, will become uneven 
in time. The remedy is to true them with a quarter- 



30 FARM MECHANICS 

inch soft iron round rod used like a lathe tool over an 
iron rest placed close to the stone on a level with the 
center of the stone. The rod is held against the stone in 
such a way as to cut away the high .bumps and make the 
stone truly round. The stone cuts away best when it is 
dry. A small rod is better than a large rod. It digs 
into the stone better and takes out a deeper bite. Large 
power stones in machine shops are trued up in this way 
frequently. Farm stones often are neglected until 
they wabble so badly that it is difficult to grind any 
tool to an edge. If the grindstone is turned by a belt 
from an engine the work of truing may be done in a 
few minutes. If the stone is turned by hand the work 
of making it round takes longer and requires some 
muscle, but it pays. 

The face of a grindstone should be rounded slightly, 
and it should be kept so by grinding the tools first on 
one side of edge of the stone, then on the other, with 
the cutting edge of the tool crosswise to the face of the 
stone. 

For safety and to prevent a sloppy waste of water 
the stone should turn away from the operator. 

The best way to keep a stone moist is by a trickle of 
water from an overhead supply. Troughs of water 
suspended under the stone are unsatisfactory, because 
the water soon gets thick and unfit for use. Such 
troughs are forgotten when the job is done, so that one 
side of the stone hangs in the water. An overhead sup- 
ply of water leaks away and no damage is done. 

Grindstone frames are best made of wood 3"x4" 
thoroughly mortised together and well braced with 
wooden braces and tied across with plenty of iron rods. 
A good grindstone frame could be made of angle iron, 
but manufacturers generally fail in the attempt. 



THE FARM SHOP 



31 



There are good ball-bearing grindstone hangers on 
the market, both for hand crank stones and for belt 
use. 

The belt is less in the way if it is brought up from 
below. This is not difficult to do. A grindstone turns 
slower than any other farm machine so a speed reduc- 
ing jack may be bolted to the floor at the back of the 
grindstone a little to one side to escape the drip. This 
arrangement requires a short belt but it may have the 
full face width of the pulley as the tight and loose pul- 
leys are on the jack shaft. 

Emery Grinders. — There are small emery wheels 
made for grinding disks that work quickly and cut an 




Figure 36. — Emery Grinder. The illustrations show two kinds of 
grinding that double emery wheels are especially adapted to. To 
grind a mowing-machine knife it is necessary to reverse. By placing 
the rest opposite the center between the two wheels the bevel will 
be the same on both sides, or edges, of the section. 

even bevel all around. They are made in pairs and are 
attached to the ends of a mandrel supported by a metal 
stand which is bolted to a bench. The same rig is used 
for sickle grinding and other farm jobs. 



BLACKSMITH SHOP 

The furniture in a blacksmith shop consists of forge, 
anvil, half barrel, vise bench, drill press and tool rack. 
A farm shop also has a heating stove, shave horse, a 
woodworking bench, a good power driven grindstone 
and a double emery grinder. 



32 



FARM MECHANICS 



Forge. — The old-fashioned forge laid up with brick 
in connection with an old-fashioned chimney is just as 
popular as ever. The same old tuyer iron receives the 
air blast from the same old style leather bellows, and 
there is nothing more satisfactory. But there are mod- 




Figure 37. — Portable Forges. The smaller forge is for light work 
such as heating rivets for iron bridge construction. The larger 
forge to the right is meant for blacksmith work. 



ern portable forges, Figure 37, made of iron, that are 
less artistic, cheaper, take up less room and answer 
the purpose just about as well. The portable iron forge 
has a small blower attached to the frame which feeds 
oxygen into the fire. There are a good many different 
sizes of portable forges. Most of them work well up to 
their advertised capacity. 



THE FARM SHOP 



33 



Generally, farm forges are not required to develop 
a great amount of heat. Farmers do but little weld- 
ing, most of the forge work on the farm being con- 
fined to repair work such as heating brace irons, so 
they may be easily bent into the proper shape, or to 
soften metal so that holes may be punched through it 
easily. 

Sharpening harrow teeth, drawing out plow points 
and horseshoeing are about the heaviest forge jobs re- 




Figure 38. — Anvil. The only satisfactory anvil is forged out of 
ingot steel with a power trip-hammer. It should weigh 140 pounds. 



quired in a farm blacksmith shop, so that a medium size 
forge will answer the purpose. 

Anvil. — An anvil should weigh at least 120 pounds ; 
140 is better. It should be set six feet from the center 
of the fire to the center of the anvil. It should be 
placed on a timber the size of the base of the anvil set 
three feet in the ground. The top of the anvil should 
be about thirty inches high. Holmstrom's rule is: 
"Close the fist, stand erect with the arm hanging 
down. The knuckles should just clear the face of the 
anvil." 



34 



FARM MECHANICS 



Bench and Vise. — The vise bench should be made 
solid and it should face a good light. The bench win- 
dow should look to the east or north if possible. It 




Figure 39. — (1) Shoeing Tool Box. The four small compartments 
are for horseshoe nails of different sizes. There may be a leather 
loop for the paring knife. The low box end is for the shoeing ham- 
mer, rasp, nippers and hoof knife. (2) Blacksmith Tool Rack. 
Tongs, handled punches and cutters are hung on the iron rails. 
Hammers are thrown on top. The lower platform is the shop 
catch-all. 




Figure 40. — Shoeing Knife. Good temper is the main qualifica- 
tion. All shoeing knives are practically the same shape, although 
they may vary in size. 



should be about four feet high and eight feet long, 

with the window sill about six inches above the bench. 

Two and one-half feet is the usual height for a 

workbench above the floor. The best workbench tops 



THE FARM SHOP 



35 



are made by bolting together 2x4 's with the edges up. 
Hardwood makes the best bench, but good pine will 
last for years. The top surface should be planed true 
and smooth after the nuts are drawn tight. 




Figure 41. — Horseshoeing Rasp and Wood Rasp. These are neces- 
sary tools in the farm shop. 




Figure 42. — Iron Work Bench. Solid is the first specification for 
an iron shop bench. It should be three feet wide, not less than 
eight feet long and about 32 inches high. The top is made of 2x4s 
placed on edge and bolted together. The supports are 2x6 bolted 
to the shop studding and braced back to the studding at the sill. 
The front part of the bench is supported by iron legs made of gas- 
pipe with threaded flanges at top and bottom. Heavy right angle 
wrought iron lugs are used to fasten the top of the bench to the 
studding. The foot of the vise leg is let into the floor of the shop 
or into a solid wooden block sunk in the ground. 



The bench vise should be heavy. A vise is used for 
bending iron hot from the forge. Unless the jaws are 
large, the hot iron is likely to heat the vise sufficiently 
to draw the temper. Heavy jaws are solid enough to 



FARM MECHANICS 



support the iron when it is being hammered. Often 
heavy hammers are used for this purpose. A heavy 
vise holds the work solid, because it may be screwed 




Figure 43. — Assortment of Files and Rasps needed in a farm shop. 
(1) Slim three-cornered handsaw-file. (2) Common three-cornered 
file suitable for filing a buck-saw. (3) Double-cut, or bastard, 10- 
inch flat file. (4) Single-cut, or mill file, either 10 or 12 inches. 
(5) Half-round 10-inch wood rasp. (6) Horseshoer's rasp. 




Figure 44. — File Handle. Basswood makes the most satisfactory- 
file handles. They are fitted by carefully turning them onto the 
file shank to take the right taper. There should be a handle for 
each file. The handle should be the right size and fitted straight 
with the file so the file will take the same angle to the work when 
turned over. 



THE FARM SHOP 



37 



Figure 45. — Nail Set. On all wooden surfaces to be painted nails 
should be carefuly driven with a round peen nail hammer and the 
heads sunk about one-eighth of an inch deep with a nail set. The 
holes may then be filled with putty and covered smoothly with paint. 



Figure 46. — Cold-Chisel. There are more flat cold-chisels than 
all other shapes. They are easily made in the farm shop and it is 
good practice. They are usually made from octagon steel. Differ- 
ent sizes are needed according to the work in hand. A piece of %" 
steel 6" long makes a handy cold-chisel for repair work. 




Figure 47. — Cape Cold-Chisel. It may be tapered both ways or one 
way to a cutting edge, or one edge may be rounded. 




Figure 48. — (1) Tinner's Punch. Made of octagon steel in sizes 
to fit the rivets. The cutting end is flat and has sharp edges made 
by roll filing. It should be about 7" long and from %" to %" in 
diameter, according to the size of rivet and thickness of sheet metal 
to be punched. (2) Prick Punch. Usually made rather short and 
stocky. It may be %" or %" diameter and 4y 2 " to 5" long. (3) 
Hot-Iron Punch. Made in many sizes and lengths. The taper 
should be the same as the drawing. 



38 



FARM MECHANICS 



so much tighter than a light vise. A heavy vise will 
hold light work, but a light vise will not hold heavy 
work. Heavy vises cost more, but they are cheaper in 




Figure 49. — (1) Blacksmith Vise. The old-fashioned leg vise is 
the most satisfactory for the blacksmith shop. It should have 5" 
jaws. (2) Power Post Drill. Belt power is practical for the post 
drill in a farm shop. The hand crank may be easily attached when 
needed. 



the end and more satisfactory at all times. A leg vise 
with five-inch jaws weighs about sixty pounds ; five and 
one-half -inch jaws, eighty pounds. A machinist's vise 



THE FARM SHOP 39 

is made to bolt on top of the bench. It will answer for 
blacksmith work on the farm, but is not as good as the 
old-fashioned leg vise. A machinist's vise is very use- 
ful in the garage, but it would hardly be necessary to 
have two heavy vises. The pipe vise belongs on a 
separate bench, which may be a plank bracketed 
against the side of the room. 

Drill-Press. — The most satisfactory drill-press for 
use on a farm is the upright drill that bolts to a post. 
There is usually a self feed which may be regulated 
according to the work. The heavy flywheel keeps the 
motion steady, and because there is no bench in the 
way, wagon tires may be suspended from the drill 
block, so they will hang free and true for drilling. 
Often long pieces of straight iron are drilled with 
holes spaced certain distances apart. It is easier to 
pass them along when they lie flat side down on the 
drill block. To use a drill properly and safely, the 
chuck must run true. It is easy to break a drill when 
it wabbles. 

Most drills are made on the twist pattern, and it is 
something of a trick to grind a twist drill, but anyone 
can do it if he tackles the job with a determination to 
do it right. In grinding a twist drill, use a new drill 
for pattern. Grind the angles the same as the new 
drill, and be careful to have the point in the center. A 
little practice will make perfect. 

Mechanics will say that no one except an expert 
should attempt to grind a twist drill, but farmers who 
are mechanically inclined are the best experts within 
reach. It is up to a farmer to grind his own drills or 
use them dull. 

In drilling wrought iron either water or oil is re- 
quired to cool the drill, but cast iron and brass are 



40 



FARM MECHANICS 



drilled dry. Light work such as hoop -iron may be 
drilled dry, but the cutting edge of the drill will last 
longer even in light work if the drill is fed with oil or 
water. 




Figure 50. — (1) Electric Drill-Press. A small electric motor is 
attached to the drill spindle. (2) Tram Points. Two steel points 
are fitted with thumbscrew clamps to fasten them to a long wooden 
bar. They are used to scribe circles too large for the compasses. 
(3) Ratchet-Brace. Two braces, or bitstocks, are needed. A large 
brace with a 6" radius for large bits and a small brace with a 3" 
or 3y 2 " radius for small bits. 



In using drill-presses, some extra attachments come 
in very handy, such as a screw clamp to hold short 
pieces of metal. Before starting the drill, a center 



THE FARM SHOP 



41 



punch is used to mark the center of the hole to be bored 
and to start the drill in the right spot. 




Figure 51.— Twist-Drills. Round shank for the post drill and 
square taper shank for brace work. Brace drills are small, y±" or 



Figure 52.- 



-Taper Reamer. Used to enlarge, or true, or taper a hole 
that has been drilled or punched. 



Figure 53. — Another style of Reamer. 




Figure 54.— Countersink. This is the old style, blacksmith-made 
flat countersink. It will do quick work but not so smooth as the 
fluted kind. 



In doing particular work, the drill may be re- 
centered when it starts wrong. This is done with a 



42 



FARM MECHANICS 



small round-nosed cold chisel. If the work is not very- 
particular, the drill may be turned a little to one side 
by slanting the piece to be drilled. This plan is only 
a makeshift, however, the proper way being to block 
the work level, so that the drill will meet it perpendicu- 
larly. However, by starting carefully, the hole may be 
bored exactly as required. 

Iron Working Tools. — Forge tools for a farm shop 
need not be numerous. Several pairs of tongs, one 




Figure 55. — Machinist's Hammers. A me- 
dium weight should be selected for farm 
repair work. It should be hung so the end 
of the handle clears half an inch when the 
face rests flat on the bench. 



blacksmith hammer, one sledge, one hardy, one 
wooden-handled cold chisel, one pair pincers, one par- 
ing knife, one shoeing rasp, and one shoeing hammer 
will do to begin with. 

Monkey-wrenches come first in the wrench depart- 
ment. The farmer needs three sizes, one may be quite 
small, say six inches in length, one ten inches, and the 
other large enough to span a two-inch nut. And there 
should be an ironclad rule, never use a monkey-wrench 
for a hammer. For work around plows, cultivators, 
harvesters, and other farm machines, a case of S 



THE FARM SHOP 



43 





Figure 56. — '(1) Hardy. The anvil hardy is used more than any 
other anvil tool except the blacksmith's hammer and tongs. (2) A 
Cold-Shut Link that may be welded, riveted or simply pounded shut. 






12 3 

Figure 57. — Calipers: (1) A pair of tight-joint inside calipers. 
(2) Its mate for taking outside dimensions. (3) A pair of spring- 
jointed, screw-adjustment inside calipers for machinists' use. 



Figure 58. — Blacksmith Tongs. Straight tongs made to hold %" 
iron is the handiest size. Two or three pairs for larger sizes of iron 
and one pair smaller come in handy. 



44 



FARM MECHANICS 



wrenches will be greatly appreciated. Manufacturers 
include wrenches with almost all farm machines, but 
such wrenches are too cheap to be of much use. 

For heavier work pipe-wrenches are absolutely 
necessary. The reason for having so many wrenches is 




Figure 59. — (1) Wire Splicer. The oval openings in the tool are 
of different sizes. They are made to hold two wires, close together, 
with ends projecting in opposite directions. Each end is wound 
around the other wire. The ends are then notched with a three- 
cornered file and broken off short and filed smooth. The splicing 
tool should be thin, about %" or T V, to bring the two twists close 
together. This is especially necessary in making hoops for wooden 
pails. (2) Blacksmith Shoeing Pincers, used to pull horseshoes. 
They should close together to catch a nail by the head. 




^ 



^ 



Figure 60. — (1) Cotter Pin Tool. Handy for inserting or remov- 
ing all sorts of cotter keys. (2) Nest of S Wrenches of different 
sizes. Farmers have never appreciated the value of light, handy 
wrenches to fit all sorts of nuts and bolt heads closely. 



to save time when in the field. It often happens that 
men and horses stand idle waiting for what should be 
a quick repair job. 

For bench work a riveting hammer and a ball pene 
machinist 's hammer are needed. A nest of S wrenches, 
two rivet sets, cold chisels, round punches and several 
files also are required. 



THE FARM SHOP 



45 



The same twist drills up to three-eighths-inch will 
do for iron as well as wood. However, if much drilling 
is done, then round shank twist drills to fit the drill 
chuck will work better. . Farmers seldom drill holes in 
iron larger than one-half inch. For particular work, 
to get the exact size, reamers are used to finish the 




Figure 61. — Hack Saw. One handle and a dozen blades. The 
frame shouM be stiff enough either to push or pull the saw without 
binding. The teeth may point either way to suit the work in hand. 




Figure 62. — 'Powerful Bolt Cutter. It is intended for factory use. 



holes after drilling. Screw holes in iron are counter- 
sunk in the drill-press. 

For small work, twist drills with square shanks for 
brace use should range in sizes from one thirty-second 
of an inch up to one-quarter inch, then every one- 
sixteenth inch up to one-half inch. 

For boring screw holes in wood the quickest work is 
done with pod bits. Not many sizes are needed, but 
they are cheap, so that a half dozen, ranging from one- 
sixteenth to one-quarter inch or thereabouts, will be 
found very useful. Pod bits belong to the wood de- 



46 



FARM MECHANICS 



partment, but on account of being used principally for 
screw sinking, they are just as useful in the iron work- 
ing department as in the carpenter shop. 

Sheet metal snips for cutting sheet metal properly 
belong with the iron working tools. Snips are from 
ten to fourteen inches in length. A medium size is 
best for miscellaneous work. If kept in good working 




Figure 63. — Cutting Nippers. For cutting the points from horse- 
shoe nails after they are driven through the hoof to hold the shoe 
in place. These nippers are hard tempered and should not be used 
for any other purpose. 




Figure 64. — Two Shapes of Steel Crowbars. 



order twelve-inch snips will cut 18-gauge galvanized 
or black iron. But a man would not care to do a great 
deal of such heavy cutting. 

Pipe-Fitting Tools. — Kecent farm improvements re- 
quire a few tools that rightfully belong to plumbers. 
Every farm has some kind of water supply for domes- 
tic use and for live-stock. A great many farm ma- 
chines require pipe tools for repair work. Every year 
more plumbing reaches the farm. 

Plumbing work is no more difficult than other me- 
chanical work, if the tools are at hand to meet the dif- 



THE FARM SHOP 



47 



ferent requirements. One job of plumbing that used 
to stand out as an impossibility was the soldering to- 
gether of lead pipes, technically termed "wiping a 
joint. ' ' This operation has been discontinued. Every 
possible connection required in farm plumbing is now 
provided for in standardized fittings. Every pipe-fit- 
ting or connection that conducts supply water or waste 




Figure 65. — (1) Pipe Vise. Hinged to open for long pipes. (2) 
Machinist's Vise. Made with a turntable to take any horizontal 
angle. The pipe jaws are removable. 



water nowadays screws together. Sizes are all made to 
certain standards and the couplings are almost per- 
fect, so that work formerly shrouded in mystery or 
hidden under trade secrets is now open to every 
schoolboy who has learned to read. 

The necessary outfit to handle all the piping and 
plumbing on the farm is not very expensive, probably 
$25.00 will include every tool and all other appliances 
necessary to put in all the piping needed to carry water 
to the watering troughs and to supply hot and cold 



48 



FARM MECHANICS 



water to the kitchen and the bathroom, together with 
the waste pipes, ventilators and the sewer to the septic 
tank. The same outfit of tools will answer for repair 
work for a lifetime. 

Farm water pipes usually are small. There may be 
a two-inch suction pipe to the force pump, and the dis- 

i 




iMllil - 



Figure 66. — Pipe Cutter. The most satisfactory pipe cutter has 
three knife-edge roller cutters which follow each other around the 
pipe. Some of these cutters have two flat face rollers and one cutter 
roller to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe. The flat face 
rollers iron out the burr and leave the freshly cut pipe the same size 
clear to the end. 




Figure 67. — Pipe-Wrench. This type of wrench is valuable for 
working with the heavier farm implements. It is intended more for 
holding than for turning. It is rather rough on nuts. Damaged 
nuts show signs of careless work. 



charge may be one and a half inch. But these pipes are 
not likely to make trouble. 

There should be a good pipe vise that will hold any 
size pipe up to three inches. At least two pipe wrenches 
are needed and they should be adjustable from one- 
quarter-inch up to two-inch pipe. 

We must remember that water pipe sizes mean in- 
side measurements. One-inch pipe is about one and 
one-quarter inches outside diameter. Three-quarter- 



THE FARM SHOP 49 

inch pipe is about one inch outside. Two-inch pipe will 
carry four times as much water as one-inch pipe, under 
the rule ' ' doubling the diameter increases the capacity 
four times." 

The three-wheel pipe cutter works quickly and is 
satisfactory for most jobs. Sometimes two of the knife 




CE^3 



Figure 68. — A smaller sized wrench with wooden handle. 

wheels are removed and rollers substituted to prevent 
raising a burr on the end of the pipe. 

Threading dies are made in standard sizes. A good 
farm set consists of stock and dies to thread all the 
different sizes of pipe from one-quarter inch to one 
inch, inclusive. Not many pipes larger than inch are 
threaded on the farm. They are cut to the proper 
lengths in the farm shop and the threads are cut in 
town. 



CHAPTER II 

FAEM SHOP WOEK 
PROFITABLE HOME REPAIR WORK 

Each farmer must be the judge in regard to the kind 
of mechanical repair work that should be done at home 
and the kind and amount of repair work that should 
go to the shop in town. A great deal depends on the 




Figure 69. — Logging Chain. One of the cleverest farm inventions 
of any age is the logging chain. It is universally used in all lumber 
camps and on every farm. It usually is from 16 to 20 feet in length, 
with a round hook on one end for the slip hitch and a grab hook 
on the other end that makes fast between any two links. 

mechanical ability of the farmer or his helpers. How- 
ever, the poorest farm mechanic can do "first aid" 
service to farm implements and machinery in the nick 
of time, if he is so disposed. A great many farmers are 
helpless in this respect because they want to be help- 
less. It is so much easier to let it go than to go right at 
it with a determination to fix it, and fix it right. 

50 



FARM SHOP WORK 



51 



On general principles, however, farm repair work 
should not occupy a farmer 's time to the detriment of 
growing crops or the proper care of live-stock. Farm- 
ing is the business ; mechanical work is a side issue. At 




Figure 70. — Neckyoke and Whiffletree Irons. Farmers can make 
better neckyokes and whiffletrees than they can buy ready-made. 
The irons may be bought separately and the wood selected piece by 
piece. 




Figure 71. — Measuring a Worn Skein for a New Boxing. The 
pasteboard calipers are cut to fit the old skein sideways because it is 
probably flattened on the bottom from wear. 



the same time, a farmer so inclined can find time dur- 
ing the year to look over every farm machine, every 
implement and every hand tool on the farm. The 
stupidest farm helper can clean the rust off of a 
spade and rub the surface with an oily cloth, in which 
some fine emery has been dusted. The emery will re- 



52 



FARM MECHANICS 



move the rust and the oil will prevent it from further 
rusting. Every laborer knows better than to use a 
spade or shovel after a rivet head has given way so the 
handle is not properly supported by the plate exten- 
sions. There really is no excuse for using tools or ma- 
chinery that are out of repair, but the extent to which 




Figure 72. — Wooden Wagon Axles. Axle timber may be bought in 
the rough or partly fitted to the skeins. 




m 



i \ 



Figure 73. — Showing how to fit the irons on the forward end of a 
wagon reach. 



MMMMM^ltllMlM' 



Figure 74. — Wire Splice. With a little practice wire may be wound 
close enough to prevent slipping. 



a farmer can .profitably do his own repairing depends 
on many contingencies. In every case he must decide 
according to circumstances, always, however, with a 
desire and determination to run his farm on business 
principles. 

Home-made Bolts. — The easiest way to make a bolt 
is to cut a rod of round iron the proper length and run 
a thread on each end. On one end the thread may be 
just long enough to rivet the head, while the thread on 



FARM SHOP WORK 



53 



the other end is made longer to accommodate the nut 
and to take up slack. A farmer needs round iron in 
sizes from one-fourth inch to five-eighths inch. He will 
use more three-eighths and one-half inch than any- 
other sizes. Blank nuts are made in standard sizes to 

Parts to Make Bolt 
(Nuts and Threaded Rod) 




Figure 75. — Emergency Bolts. A bolt may be made quickly with- 
out a forge fire by cutting a short thread on one end for the head 
and a longer thread on the other end for the nut. 



Figure 76. — Rivets. A stock of soft iron rivets of different sizes and 
lengths should be always kept on hand ready for immediate use. 



fit any size of round iron. Have an assortment, in dif- 
ferent sizes, of both the square and the hexagon nuts. 
To make a bolt in the ordinary way requires weld- 
ing, but for repair work in a hurry it is better to select 
the proper iron and cut it to the required length 
either with a cold chisel in the vise, or with a hardy 
and a handled cold chisel over an anvil. The quickest 



54 



FARM MECHANICS 



Figure 77. — Rivets. 




Figure 78. — Rivet Set. This style of set is used for small rivets. 
The size should be selected to fit the rivets closely. Larger rivets are 
made to hug the work by means of a flat piece of steel with a hole 
through it. 




Figure 79. — Rivet Set. 



A A 





Figure 80. — i(l) Coulter Clamp. Plow-beam clamps should be 
made in the farm shop to fit each plow. (2) Garden Weeder. The 
quickest hand killer of young weeds in the garden is a flat steel 
blade that works horizontally half an inch below the surface of the 
ground. 



FARM SHOP WORK 




Figure 81. — Stock and Dies. Taps and dies and stocks are best kept 
in compartments in a case made for the purpose. 




Figure 82. — Stock for Round Dies. The opening is turned true 
and sized accurately to fit. The screw applies pressure to hold the 
die by friction. 




^AWVWWm 



--»****Js**K*»v»v*>J 



Figure 83. — Taps and Dies. Standard threads are tapped into 
blank nuts and corresponding threads are cut onto bolts with ac- 
curacy and rapidity by using this style taps and dies. They may be 
had in all sizes. The range for farm work should cut from Vi" to 
%", inclusive. 



56 



FARM MECHANICS 



way of cutting that mashes the rod the least is to be 
preferred. The size of the rod will determine the man- 
ner of cutting in most instances. 




Figure 84. — Taper Tap for Blacksmith's Use. 




Figure 85. — Machine Bolt and Carriage Bolt. The first is used 
against iron and the second against wood, but this rule is not arbi- 
trary. The rounded side of the nuts are turned in against wood ; 
the flat side against washers or heavier iron. Use square head bolts 
if you expect to take them out after the nuts have rusted on. 




Figure 86. — Plow bolts and sickle bar bolts should be kept in 
stock. Standard sizes and shapes are made for several different 
makes of plows and machines. 



Taps and dies are made to fit each size of rod. If the 
thread on the bolt is cut with a solid, or round, plate 
die, the corresponding tap is run clear through the 
nut. In that case the nut will screw on the bolt easily, 
possibly a little loose for some purposes. It is so in- 
tended by the manufacturers to give the workman a 



FARM SHOP WORK 



57 



little leeway. If it is desirable to have the nut screw 
on the bolt very tight, then the tap is stopped before 
the last thread enters the nut. A little practice soon 




Figure 87. — Lag Screw. To set a lag screw in hardwood, bore a hole 
the size of the screw shank as calipered between the threads. 








2 



Figure 88. — (1) Wagon-Box Irons, showing how to attach the box 
and the rave to the cross-piece and to brace the side of the box to 
hold it upright. There may be several of these braces on each side 
of the wagon box. (2) U Bolt in Cement. A solid staple to be em- 
bedded in concrete for a horse ring, door hinge, cow stanchion, etc. 



58 



FARM MECHANICS 



qualifies a workman to fit a nut according to the place 
the bolt is to occupy. 

Generally it is desirable to have nuts fit very snug 
on parts of machines that shake a good deal, and this 
applies to almost all farm machinery and implements. 

Ordinarily a horse rake is supposed to travel steadily 
along like a cart, but the ground is rough and in practi- 




Figure 89. — Wagon-Box Brace. It is offset to hold the rave and 
to brace the sideboard at the rear and the front ends and some- 
times in the middle of light wagon beds. 




Figure 90. — Two Plow Clevises and a Plow Link. 



cal use the nuts loosen almost as soon as haying com- 
mences. 

Some farmers make a practice of riveting bolt ends 
to prevent nuts from working loose. When the bolts 
have square heads, this practice is not objectionable, 
because with two wrenches a nut can be twisted off 
over the riveting, but a great many bolts have round 
heads and very short, square shanks. Theoretically, 
the shanks are driven into the wood firm enough to 
prevent the bolts from turning. Practically this 



FARM SHOP WORK 59 

theory is a delusion and a snare, as every farm boy can 
testify. 

Bolts are not manufactured in quantities in the farm 
blacksmith shop. They can be made by machinery 
cheaper, but so many times a bolt is needed on short 
notice that the farm shop should have the necessary 
tools and materials to supply the need quickly. 

Forging Iron and Steel. — Iron and steel are com- 
posed of the same properties, but differ chemically. 
Steel also is finer grained than iron and it requires 
different treatment. Iron should be forged at a light- 
red or white heat. If forged at a dark-red heat the 
iron generally will granulate or crack open and weaken 
the metal. For a smooth finish the last forging may 
be done at a dark-red heat, but the hammer must be 
used lightly. The weight of the hammer as well as the 
blows also must differ with the different size of iron 
under heat. Small sizes should be treated with ham- 
mer blows that are rather light, while for large sizes 
the blows should be correspondingly heavy. If light 
blows be given with a light hammer in forging heavy 
iron the outside alone will be affected, thus causing 
uneven tension and contrarywise strain in the iron. 

Steel should never be heated above a yellow heat. If 
heated to a white heat the steel will be burned. Steel 
should never be forged at a dark-red heat. If this is 
done it will cause considerable strain between the inner 
and outer portions, which may cause it to crack while 
forging. The weight of the hammer and the hammer 
blows in forging of steel is vastly of more importance 
than in forging iron. If the blow or the hammer is not 
heavy enough to exert its force throughout the thick- 
ness of the steel it will probably crack in the process of 
hardening or tempering. If steel be properly forged it 



60 FARM MECHANICS 

will harden easily and naturally, but if improperly 
forged the tempering will be very difficult — probably a 
failure. The quality of a finished tool depends greatly 
upon the correct heat and proper method used in forg- 
ing and hardening it. 

Making Steel Tools. — Steel for tools should first be 
annealed to even the density and prevent warping. 
This is done by heating it to a dull cherry red in a slow- 
fire. A charcoal fire for this purpose is best because it 
contains no sulphur or other injurious impurities. 
After heating the piece of new steel all over as evenly 
as possible it should be buried several inches deep in 
powdered charcoal and left to cool. This completes the 
annealing process. While working steel into proper 
shape for tools, great care is required to prevent burn- 
ing. It should be worked quickly and the process re- 
peated as often as necessary. Practice is the only 
recipe for speed. 

When the tool is shaped as well as possible on the 
anvil it is then finished with a file by clamping the new 
tool in the vise, using single cut files. Bastard files are 
too rough for tool steel. After the tool is shaped by 
cross-filing and draw-filing to make it smooth it is some- 
times polished by wrapping fine emery cloth around 
the file. Oil is used with emery cloth to give the steel 
a luster finish. Tempering is the last process in the 
making of such tools as cold chisels, drills, dies, 
punches, scratchawls, etc. 

Tempering Steel Tools. — Good judgment is required 
to get the right temper. Good eyesight is needed to 
catch the color at the exact instant, and quick action to 
plunge it into the water before it cools too much. Dies 
are made very hard. The color of the steel at dipping 
time should be a bright straw color. Cold chisels will 



FARM SHOP WORK 



61 




around the anvil and the leg vise. 



62 



** Wfe^ MITCHA^lds 



break when being used if tempered toojt^jd. ^ eo^fl •. 
chisels are to be used for cutting iron, the color should! " 
be violet ; if the chisels are for cutting stone, purple is 
the color. Drills for boring iron are tempered a dark 
straw color at the cutting edge merging back into blue. 
The water in the dipping tub should be warm, as steel 
is likely to check or crack when it is tempered in cold 
water. 

Tool steel should be held in a perpendicular position 
when it enters the water to cool all sides alike. Other- 
wise the new tool might warp. It is better to dip 
slowly, sometimes holding the point, or cutting edge, in 
the water while permitting the shank to cool slowly 
enough to remain soft. Some sizes of steel may be 
tempered too hard at first and the temper immediately 
drawn by permitting the heat of the shank to follow 
down almost to the edge, then dip. This is done 
quickly while watching the colors as they move to- 
wards the point or edge. 

Draw-filing. — Making six-sided and eight-sided 
punches and scratchawls out of hexagon and octagon 
tool steel is interesting work. The steel is cut to length 
by filing a crease all' around with a three-cornered file. 
When it is sufficiently notched, the steel will break 
straight across. To shape the tool and to draw out the 
point the steel is heated in the forge to a dull cherry 
red and hammered carefully to preserve the shape 
along the taper. Special attention must be given to 
the numerous corners. A scratchawl or small punch, 
must be heated many times and hammered quickly be- 
fore cooling. An old English shop adage reads: 
' ' Only one blacksmith ever went to the devil and that 
was for pounding cold iron." 

After the punch or scratchawl is roughed out on the 



FARM SHOP WORK 



63 



anvil, it is fastened in the vise and finished by cross- 
filing and draw-filing. Copper caps on the vise jaws 
will prevent indentations. 

Draw-filing means grasping each end of the file and 
moving it back and forth sidewise along the work. For 




Figure 92. 



-Vise Jaw Guards. Soft auxiliary vise jaws are made of 
sheet copper or galvanized iron. 



llllllllllllliiiHiiiiiMiiiiniiiiiii^iiHiii i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMH^i^p nnnB 




Turn Piece 
while U5ing 



(SIDE VIEW) 



Figure 93. — Roll Filing. To file a piece of steel round it is rolled by 
one hand while the file is used by the other hand. 



this purpose single-cut files are used. The smoothing 
is done with a very fine single-cut file, or if very par- 
ticular, a float file is used. Then the polish is rubbed 
on with fine emery cloth and oil. The emery cloth is 
wrapped around the file and the same motion is con- 
tinued. -With some little practice a very creditable 



64 FARM MECHANICS 

piece of work may be turned out. Such work is valu- 
able because of the instruction. A good test of skill at 
blacksmithing is making an octagon punch that tapers 
true to the eye when finished. 

Set-Screws. — It is customary to fasten a good many 
gear wheels, cranks and pulleys to machinery shafts 
by set-screws. There are two kinds of set-screws ; one 
has a cone point, the other a cup end. Both screws are 
hardened to sink into the shaft. A cup is supposed to 
cut a ring and the point is supposed to sink into the 
shaft to make a small hole sufficient to keep the wheel 





Figure 94. — Machine-Bolt and Set-Screw. The bolt to the left is 
used to clamp cylinder heads in place. The set-screw to the right is 
the cup variety. The end is countersunk to form a cup with a 
sharp rim. 

from slipping. However, unless the cone-pointed screw 
is countersunk into the shaft, it will not hold much of 
a strain. The point is so small it will slip and cut a 
groove around the shaft. To prevent this, the set-screw 
may be countersunk by first marking the shaft with an 
indentation of the point of the screw. Then the wheel 
or crank or collar may be removed and a hole drilled 
into the shaft with a twist-drill the same size, or a 
sixty-fourth smaller, than the set-screw. Then by 
forcing the end of the set-screw into the drill hole, the 
wheel is held solid. 

The principal objection to set-screws is that they are 
dangerous. The heads always project and are ready 
to catch a coat sleeve when the shaft is revolving. In 
all cases, set-screws should be as large as the hub will 



FARM SHOP WORK 65 

allow, and it is better to have them protected so it is im- 
possible to catch anything to wind around the shaft. 
Cup set-screws are not satisfactory except for very 
light work. If necessary to use them, the ends may be 
firmly fixed by cutting a ring with a sharp, diamond- 
point cold chisel. 

Setting the Handsaw. — Nine teeth to the inch is the 
most satisfactory handsaw for all kinds of lumber. 
Setting the teeth of this kind of*saw is best done with 
a hand lever set. The plunger pin should be care- 
fully adjusted to bend the teeth just far enough to give 
the necessary set. For general work a saw needs more 
set than is needed for kiln-dried stuff. The teeth 
should cut a kerf just wide enough to clear the blade. 
Anything more is a waste of time and muscle. It is 
better to work from both sides of the saw by first set- 
ting one side the whole length of the blade. Then re- 
verse the saw in the clamp and set the alternate teeth 
in the same manner. There should be a good solid stop 
between the handles of the set to insure equal pressure 
against each sawtooth. The pin should be carefully 
placed against each tooth at exactly the same spot 
every time and the pressure should be the same for each 
tooth. 

The best saw-sets for fine tooth saws are automatic 
so far as it is possible to make them so, but the skill 
of the operator determines the quality of the work. 
The reason for setting a saw before jointing is to leave 
the flattened ends of the teeth square with the blade 
after the jointing and filing is completed. 

Jointing a Handsaw. — After the saw has been set it 
must be jointed to square the teeth and to even them to 
equal length, and to keep the saw straight on the cut- 
ting edge. Some woodworkers give their saws a slight 



66 



FARM MECHANICS 



camber, or belly, to correspond with the sway-back. 
The camber facilitates cutting to the bottom in mitre- 
box work without sawing into the bed piece of the box. 
It also throws the greatest weight of the thrust upon 
the middle teeth. A saw with even teeth cuts smoother, 
runs truer and works faster than a saw filed by guess. 
It is easy to file a saw when all of the teeth are the same 




^Old File 
— R ivet to Prevent 
Splitting of Block 



Figure 95. — Saw Jointer. The wooden block is about two inches 
square by 12" or 14" in length. The block is made true and scribed 
carefully to have the ripsaw slot square, straight and true. The 
file is set into a mortise square with the block. 

length and all have the same set. Anyone can do a 
good job of filing if the saw is made right to begin with, 
but no one can put a saw in good working order with 
a three-cornered file as his only tool. 

Filing the Handsaw. — First comes the three-cor- 
nered file. It should be just large enough to do the 
work. There is no economy in buying larger files 
thinking that each of the three corners will answer the 
same purpose as a whole file of smaller size. In the 
first place the small file is better controlled and will 
do better work. In the second place the three corners 
are needed to gum the bottoms of the divisions between 



FARM SHOP WORK 67 

the teeth. There is much more wear on the corners 
than on the sides of a saw-file. Also the corners of a 
small file are more acute, which means a good deal in 
the shape of the finished teeth. 

After the saw is carefully set and jointed, clamp it 
in the saw vise and file one side of the saw from heel 
to point. Then reverse the saw in the saw clamp and 
file the other side, being careful to keep the bevel of 
each tooth the same. It is better to stop filing just be- 
fore the tooth comes to a point. A triangular or dia- 
mond shaped point will cut faster and leave a smoother 
saw kerf and last longer than a needle point. 

As the tooth of a crosscut saw is filed away from both 
edges, it is necessary to make allowances when filing 
the first side, otherwise some of the teeth will come to 
a sharp point before the gumming is deep enough. 

Using a Handsaw. — Anyone can saw a board square 
both up and down and crossways by following a few 
simple rules. Have the board supported on the level 
by two well made saw-benches 24" high. Stand up 
straight as possible and look down on both sides of 
the saw blade. Use long even strokes and let the saw 
play lightly and evenly through the saw cut. 

Do not cut the mark out ; cut to it on the waste end, 
or further end, if there are more pieces to be cut from 
the board. The saw kerf is about 3/32" wide for a 
nine-tooth saw set for unkilned lumber or dimension 
stuff. If both saw kerfs are taken from one piece and 
none from the next then one length will be 3/16" 
shorter than the other. 

For practice it is a good plan to make two marks 
3/32" apart and cut between them. Use a sharp- 
pointed scratchawl to make the marks. A penknife 
blade is next best, but it must be held flat against the 



68 FARM MECHANICS 

blade of the square, otherwise it will crowd in or run 
off at a tangent. 

Setting a Circular Saw. — A good saw-set for a cir- 
cular saw may be made out of an old worn-out flat file. 
Heat the file in the forge fire to draw the temper and 
anneal it by covering it with ashes. Smooth it on the 
grindstone. Put it in the vise and file a notch in one 
edge. The notch should be just wide enough to fit 
loosely over the point of a sawtooth. The notch should 
be just deep enough to reach down one-quarter of the 
length of the tooth. 

•Make a saw-set gauge out of a piece of flat iron or 
steel one inch wide and about four inches long. File a 
notch into and parallel to one edge at one corner, about 
one-sixteenth of an inch deep from the edge and about 
half an inch long measuring from the end. With the 
homemade saw-set bend the saw teeth outward until the 
points just miss the iron gauge in the corner notch. 
The edges of the gauge should be straight and parallel 
and the notch should be parallel with the edge. In use 
the edge of the gauge is laid against the side of the saw 
so the projecting tooth reaches into the notch. One- 
sixteenth of an inch may be too much set for a small 
saw but it won't be too much for a 24-inch wood saw 
working in green cord wood. 

Jointing a Circular Saw. — Kun the saw at full speed. 
Lay a 14-inch file flat on the top of the saw table at 
right angles to the saw. Move the file slowly and care- 
fully towards the saw until it ticks against the teeth. 
Hold the file firmly by both ends until each sawtooth 
ticks lightly against the file. A saw in good working 
order needs very little jointing, but it should have at- 
tention every time the saw is set and it should be done 
after setting and before filing. 



FARM SHOP WORK 69 

Filing a Circular Saw. — The teeth of a crosscut cir- 
cular saw point a little ahead. Sometimes they point 
so nearly straight out from the center that you have to 
look twice to determine which way the saw should run. 
There are plenty of rules for the pitch of sawteeth, but 
they are subject to many qualifications. What inter- 
ests a farmer is a saw that will cut green poles and 
crooked limbs into stove lengths with the least possible 
delay. A saw 20 inches in diameter will cut a stick 
eight inches through without turning it to finish the 
cut. The front or cutting edges of the teeth of a 24- 
inch crosscut circular saw for wood sawing should line 
to a point a little back from the center. This may not 
sound definite enough for best results, so the more par- 
ticular farmers may use a straight edge. Select a 
straight stick about half an inch square. Rest it on 
top of or against the back of the saw mandrel and 
shape the forward edges of the teeth on a line with the 
upper side or rear side of the straight edge. The teeth 
will stand at the proper pitch when the saw is new, 
if it was designed for sawing green wood. If it works 
right before being filed, then the width of the straight 
edge may be made to conform to the original pitch and 
kept for future use. 

The gumming is done with the edge of the file while 
filing the front edges of the teeth. It is finished with 
the flat side of the file while filing the rear edges of 
the teeth. The depth, or length, of the teeth should be 
kept the same as the manufacturer designed them. A 
wood saw works best when the front edges of the teeth 
have but little beyel. The back edges should have 
more slant. The teeth should have three-cornered or 
diamond-shaped points. Needle points break off when 
they come against knots or cross-grained hardwood. 



70 



FARM MECHANICS 



Short teeth do no cutting. Single cut flat files are used 
for circular saws. The file should fit the saw. It 
should be about %" wider than the length of the front 
side of the teeth. The back edges require that the file 
shall have some play to show part of the tooth while 
the file is in motion. Large files are clumsy. The file 
should be carefully selected. 

How to Sharpen a Hoe. — It is quicker and more sat- 
isfactory to file a hoe sharp than to grind it on the 




Figure 96. — How to Sharpen a Hoe. Grinding a hoe is difficult, 
but filing it sharp and straight at the cutting edge is easy. If the 
hoe chatters when held in the vise, spring a wooden block under the 
blade. Use false vise jaws to prevent dinging the shank. 



grindstone. The shank of the hoe must be held firmly 
in the vise and there should be a solid block of wood 
under the blade of the hoe, a little back from the edge, 
to keep the file from chattering. A single cut flat file 
is the best to use. It should be long enough to be 
easily held in one position to make a smooth, even bevel 
at the same angle to the face of the blade all the way 
across. To make sure not to file a feather edge it is 
better to joint the hoe to begin with, then to stop filing 
just before reaching the edge. If the edge be left 



FARM SHOP WORK 71 

1/64" thick it will wear longer and work more easily 
after having been used an hour or two than it will if 
the edge be filed thin. This is especially noticeable 
when the ground contains small stones. Hoes are 
sharpened from the under side only. The inside of a 
hoe blade should be straight clear to the edge. Hoes 
should always have sharp corners. When working 
around valuable plants you want to know exactly 
where the corner of the hoe is when the blade is buried 
out of sight in the ground. 

Shoeing Farm Horses. — Farmers have no time or 
inclination to make a business of shoeing horses, but 
there are occasions when it is necessary to pull a shoe 
or set a shoe and to do it quickly. Shoeing tools are not 
numerous or expensive. They consist first of a tool box, 
with a stiff iron handle made in the shape of a bale. 
The box contains a shoeing hammer, hoof rasp, hoof 
knife, or paring-knife, as it is usually called, and two 
sizes of horseshoe-nails. Sometimes a foot pedestal is 
used to set the horse's front foot on when the horse 
wants to bear down too hard, but this pedestal is not 
necessary in the farm shop. 

There are flat-footed horses that cannot work even 
in summer without shoes." Common sense and shoeing 
tools are the only requirements necessary to tack on a 
plate without calks. Shoes to fit any foot may be pur- 
chased at so much a pound. 

A paring-knife is used to level the bottom of the 
hoof so that it will have an even bearing on the shoe all 
the way round. It is not desirable to pare the frog or 
the braces in the bottom of a horse's foot. If the foot 
is well cupped, a little of the horny rim may be taken 
off near the edges. Generally it is necessary to shorten 
the toe. This is done partly with the hoof chisel and 



72 FARM MECHANICS 

rasp after the shoe is nailed fast. Sometimes one- 
fourth of an inch is sufficient ; at other times a horse 's 
hoof is very much improved by taking off one-half inch 
or more of the toe growth either from the bottom or the 
front or both. 

Like all other mechanical work the shoeing of a 
horse's foot should be studied and planned before 
starting. A long toe is a bad leverage to overcome 
when pulling a heavy load. At the same time, nature 



Figure 97. — Tool Box for Field Use. The long open side is for 
tools. On the other side of the center partition bolts, keys, screws, 
nails, bits of wire, leather, tin, etc., are kept in the different 
divisions. 

intended that a horse should have considerable toe 
length as a protection to the more tender parts of the 
foot. And the pastern bone should play at the proper 
angle. 

Handy Tool Box. — A tool box with a high lengthwise 
partition in the middle and a handle in the middle of 
the top of the partition is the handiest tool box ever 
used on a farm. At haying and harvest time it should 
be fitted with the common tools required about haying 
and harvest machinery. One side is partitioned into 
square boxes to hold split wire keys, washers, bolts, 
rivets, and a collection of wire nails, bits of copper 



FARM SHOP WORK 73 

wire, a leather punch, etc. On the other side of the 
box is an assortment of wrenches, cold chisels, punches, 
pliers and hammers. This tool box belongs in the 
wagon that accompanies the outfit to the field. 

Babbitting Boxings. — Babbitting boxings is one of 
the repair jobs on the farm. Some men are careless 
about oiling; sometimes sand cuts them out. Every 
year some boxings need rebabbitting. The melting 
ladle should be large enough to pour the largest box. 
Usually a 5-inch bowl is about right. A large ladle 




Figure 98. — .Melting Ladle. Babbitting shaft boxing requires a 
melting ladle. It should be about five inches across the bowl and 
about three inches deep. That is a good size to heat in a forge fire. 



will pour a small box but a small ladle won't pour a 
large one. In cold weather the shaft and box should 
be warmed to insure an even flow of metal. Pasteboard 
is fitted against the shaft when pouring the cap or top 
half of the box. Pasteboard is fitted around the shaft 
at the ends of the box to keep the melted metal from 
running out. Never use clay or putty, it is too mussy 
and the babbitt is made rough and uneven at the edges. 
Some skill is required to fit either wood or metal close 
enough to prevent leaks and to do a neat job. 

If the boxing is small, both top and bottom may be 
poured at once by making holes through the dividing 
pasteboard. The holes must be large enough to let the 
melted metal through and small enough to break apart 
easily when cold. 



CHAPTER III 

GENEEATING MECHANICAL POWER TO DEIVE 
MODERN FARM MACHINERY 

At one time ninety-seven per cent of the population 
of the United States got their living directly from till- 
ing the soil, and the power used was oxen and manual 
labor. At the present time probably not more than 
thirty-five per cent of our people are actively engaged 
in agricultural pursuits. And the power problem has 
been transferred to horses, steam, gasoline, kerosene 
and water power, with electricity as a power conveyor. 

Fifty years ago a farmer was lucky if he owned a 
single moldboard cast-iron plow that he could follow all 
day on foot and turn over one, or at most, two acres. 
The new traction engines are so powerful that it is 
possible to plow sixty feet in width, and other ma- 
chines have been invented to follow the tractor 
throughout the planting and growing seasons to the 
end of the harvest. The tractor is supplemented by 
numerous smaller powers. All of which combine to 
make it possible for one-third of the people to grow 
enough to feed the whole American family and to ex- 
port a surplus to Europe. 

At the same time, the standard of living is very much 
higher than it was when practically everyone worked 
in the fields to grow and to harvest the food necessary 
to live. 

Farm machinery is expensive, but it is more expen- 
sive to do without. Farmers who make the most money 

74 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 75 

are the ones who use the greatest power and the best 
machinery. Farmers who have a hard time of it are 
the ones who use the old wheezy hand pump, the eight- 
foot harrow and the walking plow. The few horses 
they keep are small and the work worries them. The 
owner sympathizes with his team and that worries him. 
"Worry is the commonest form of insanity. 



SQSfc 



Figure 99. — Flail, the oldest threshing machine, still used for 
threshing pedigreed seeds to prevent mixing. The staff is seven or 
eight feet long and the swiple is about three feet long by two and 
one-half inches thick in the middle, tapering to one and one-half 
inches at the ends. The staff and swiple are fastened together by 
rawhide thongs. 



Figure 100. — Bucket Yoke. It fits around. the neck and over the 
shoulders. Such human yokes have been used for ages to carry two 
buckets of water, milk or other liquids. The buckets or pails should 
nearly balance each other. They are steadied by hand to prevent 
slopping. 

At a famous plowing match held at "Wheatland, 
Illinois, two interesting facts were brought out. Boys 
are not competing for furrow prizes and the walking 
plow has gone out of fashion. The plowing at the 
Wheatland plowing match was done by men with rid- 
ing plows. Only one boy under eighteen years was 
ready to measure his ability against competition. The 
attendance of farmers and visitors numbered about 
three thousand, which shows that general interest in 
the old-fashioned plowing match is as keen as ever. A 
jumbo tractor on the grounds proved its ability to 
draw a big crowd and eighteen plows at the same time. 
It did its work well and without vulgar ostentation. 
Lack of sufficient land to keep it busy was the tractor 's 



76 



FARM MECHANICS 



only disappointment, but it reached out a strong right 
arm and harrowed the furrows down fine, just to show 
that it ' ' wasn 't mad at nobody. ' ' 

Modern farm methods are continually demanding 
more power. Larger implements are being used and 




Figure 101. — Well Sweep. The length 
of the sweep is sufficient to lower the 
bucket into the water and to raise it to 
the coping at the top of the brickwork. 
The rock on the short end of the sweep 
is just heavy enough to balance the 
bucket full of water. 



heavier horses are required to pull them. A great deal 
of farm work is done by engine power. Farm power is 
profitable when it is employed to its full capacity in 
manufacturing high-priced products. It may be 
profitable also in preventing waste by working up 
cheap materials into valuable by-products. The mod- 
ern, well-managed farm is a factory and it should be 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 



77 



managed along progressive factory methods. In a 
good dairy stable hay, straw, grains and other feeds 
are manufactured into high-priced cream and butter. 
Farming pays in proportion to the amount of work 
intelligently applied to this manner of increasing val- 




Figure 102. — Wire Stretcher. A small block and tackle will 
stretch a single barb-wire tight enough for a fence. By using two 
wire snatches the ends of two wires may be strained together for 
splicing. 




Figure 103. — Block and Tackle. The rope is threaded into two 
double blocks. There is a safety stop that holds the load at any 
height. 



ues. It is difficult to make a profit growing and selling 
grain. Grain may sell for more than the labor and 
seed, but it takes so much vitality from the land that 
depreciation of capital often is greater than the margin 
of apparent profit. When grains are grown and fed to 
live-stock on the farm, business methods demand better 



78 



FARM MECHANICS 



buildings and more power, which means that the 
farmer is employing auxiliary machinery and other 
modern methods to enhance values. 

In other manufacturing establishments raw mate- 
rial is worked over into commercial products which 
bring several times the amount of money paid for the 
raw material. 





Figure 104. — Farm Hoists. Two styles of farm elevating hoists 
are shown in this illustration. Two very different lifting jobs are 
also shown. 



The principle is the same on the farm except that 
when a farmer raises the raw material he sells it to 
himself at a profit. When he feeds it to live-stock and 
sells the live-stock he makes another profit. When the 
manure is properly handled and returned to the soil 
he is making another profit on a by-product. 

Farming carried on in this way is a complicated 
business which requires superior knowledge of business 
methods and principles. In order to conduct the busi- 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 79 

ness of farming profitably the labor problem has to be 
met. Good farm help is expensive. Poor farm help is 
more expensive. While farm machinery also is ex- 
pensive, it is cheaper than hand labor when the farmer 
has sufficient work to justify the outlay. It is tiresome 




Figure 105. — Two Powerful Winches. The one to the left is used 
for pulling small stumps or roots in the process of clearing land. 
The rope runs on and off the drum to maintain three or four laps 
or turns. The winch to the right is used for hoisting well drilling 
tools or to hang a beef animal. The rope winds on the drum in two 
layers if necessary. 

to have agricultural writers ding at us about the su- 
perior acre returns of German farms. German hand- 
made returns may be greater per acre, but one Ameri- 
can farmhand, by the use of proper machinery, will 
produce more food than a whole German family. 

DOG CHURN 

Even the dog works on some farms. A dog is a nui- 
sance among dairy cattle, but he can be made to earn 
his salt at churning time. All mechanism in connec- 



so 



FARM MECHANICS 



tion with dog power must be light. It also is necessary 
to eliminate the friction as much as possible. 

The best way to make a dog power is to use a light 
wooden sulky wheel for the revolving turn table. Next 
best to the sulky wheel is a light buggy wheel. The 
wheel is made fast to an upright iron shaft that is 
stepped into an iron oil well at the bottom and inclined 




Figure 106. — Dog Churn Power. A wheel keyed to an iron shaft 
is placed at an angle as shown. The weight of the dog turns the 
wheel and power is conveyed to the churn by a light rope belt. It is 
necessary to confine the dog between stationary partitions built like 
a stall over the wheel. 

at an angle of about fifteen degrees to give the neces- 
sary power. To steady the top of the shaft a light box- 
ing is used, preferably a ballbearing bicycle race to re- 
duce friction. Power is conveyed to the churn by 
means of a grooved pulley on the top of the shaft. A 
small, soft rope or heavy string belt runs from this 
pulley to a similar pulley connected with the churn. 

Dogs learn to like the work when fed immediately 
after the churning is finished. Dogs have been known 
to get on to the power wheel to call attention to their 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 81 

hungry condition. This calls to mind the necessity of 
arranging a brake to stop the wheel to let the dog off. 
"When the wheel is running light, the dog cannot let go. 
A spring brake to wear against the iron tire of the 
wheel is the most satisfactory. The brake may be 
tripped and set against the tire automatically by a 
small lever and weight attached to the underside of 
the wheel. When the speed is too fast the weight 
swings out and sets the brake. When the speed slack- 
ens the weight drops back towards the center and re- 
leases the brake. When the speed is about right the 
weight swings between the two spring catches. 

BULL TREADMILL 

On dairy farms it is common to see a valuable pure 
bred bull working a treadmill for exercise and to pump 
water. Sometimes he turns the cream-separator, but 
the motion is too unsteady for good results. Tread- 
mills for this purpose are very simple. The mechan- 
ism turns a grooved pulley which propels a rope pow- 
er conveyor. The rope belt may be carried across the 
yards in any direction and to almost any distance. 
Bull treadmills consist of a framework of wood which 
carries an endless apron supported on rollers. The 
apron link chains pass around and turn two drumhead 
sprocket-wheels at the upper end and an idler drum at 
the lower end. The sprocket-wheel drum shaft is 
geared to an auxiliary shaft which carries a grooved 
pulley. A rope belt power conveyor runs in this groove 
and carries power from the bull pen to the pump. 

Bull tread powers usually have smooth inclined 
lags, because a bull's steps on the tread power are 
naturally uneven and irregular. This construction 
gives an even straight tread to the travel surface. To 



82 



FARM MECHANICS 



prevent slipping, soft wooden strips are nailed onto the 
lags at the lower edges. Even incline tread blocks or 
lags are also recommended for horses that are not shod 
and for all animals with split hoofs. The traveling 
apron of the power is placed on an incline and the 
treads are carried around the two drums at the upper 
and lower ends of the frame by means of endless 




Figure 107. — Bull Tread Power. Treadmills have gone out of 
fashion. Too much friction was the cause, but a mill like this is 
valuable to exercise a pure bred bull. Some dairymen make him- 
pump water. 

chains. There is a governor attachment which regu- 
lates the speed and prevents the machinery from "run- 
ning away." 

The simplest governor is made on the two-ball gov- 
ernor principle with weights on opposite levers. The 
governor is attached to two opposite spokes in the fly- 
wheel. As the speed increases the weights move out- 
ward because of their centrifugal force. This motion 
operates a brake lever to retard or stop the flywheel. 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 83 

When the machine stops an opposite weight rests 
against the flywheel until it starts in motion again, so 
the apron cannot be moved until the brake is released. 
This is necessary to get the animal on or off of the plat- 
form while it is at rest to avoid accidents. The usual 
incline is a rise of two feet in eight when power is 
wanted. This pitch compels the bull to lift one-quarter 
of his own weight and it may be too severe for a heavy 
animal. The endless apron is an endless hill climb to 
the bull. Treadmills are not economical of power be- 
cause there are so many bearings to generate friction. 

WINDMILLS 

Wind power is the cheapest power we have. A wind- 
mill properly proportioned to its work is a great help, 
especially when it is attached to a good pump for the 
purpose of lifting water into an elevated tank from 
which it is piped under pressure for domestic purposes 
and for watering live-stock. 

You can have considerable patience with a windmill 
if you only depend upon it for pumping water, pro- 
vided you have a tank that will hold a week's supply to 
be drawn during a dry, hot time when every animal on 
the farm demands a double allowance of water. That 
is the time when a farmer hates to attach himself to 
the pump handle for the purpose of working up a 
hickory breeze. That also is the time when the wind 
neglects a fellow. 

A good windmill is useful up to about one-third of its 
rated capacity, which is the strongest argument for 
buying a mill larger than at first seems necessary. Some 
men have suffered at some time in their lives with the 
delusion that they could tinker with a poorly con- 
structed windmill and make it earn its oil. They have 



84 FARM MECHANICS 

never waked up to a full realization of their early de- 
lusion. It is a positive fact that all windmills are not 
lazy, deceitful nor wholly unreliable. When properly 
constructed, rightly mounted and kept in good repair, 
they are not prone to work in a crazy fashion when the 
tank is full and loaf when it is empty. There are 
thousands of windmills that have faithfully staid on 
the job continuously twenty-four hours per day for 
five or ten years at a stretch, all the time working for 
nothing year after year without grumbling, except 
when compelled to run without oil. At such times the 
protest is loud and nerve racking. 

A good windmill with suitable derrick, pump and 
piping may cost $150. The yearly expense figures 
something like this : 

Interest on investment at 6% per annum. . .$ 9.00 

Depreciation 10% 15.00 

Oil 1.00 

JRepairs 3.00 

making a total of $28, which is less than $2.50 per 
month for the work of elevating a constant supply of 
water for the house, stable and barnyard. 

ONE-MULE PUMP 

A home-made device that is much used on live-stock 
ranches in California is shown in the illustration. 
This simple mechanism is a practical means for con- 
verting circular mule motion into vertical reciprocat- 
ing pump action. A solid post is set rather deep in the 
ground about twelve feet from the well. This post is 
the fulcrum support of the walking-beam. One end 
of the walking-beam reaches to the center line of the 
well, where it connects with the pump shaft. The 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 



85 



other end of the walking-beam is operated by a pit- 
man shaft connecting with a crank wrist pin near the 
ground. A round iron shaft similar to a horse-power 
tumbling rod about ten or twelve feet in length and 
one and a half inches in diameter is used to convey 
power and motion to the pitman shaft. 



DETAIL. "A" 



m 





^m\wxiiiiii>m\miimiww* 



Figure 108. — Mule Pump. A practical home-made power to pump 
water for live-stock. It is used where the water-table is within 
20 feet of the surface of the ground. The drawing shows a post 
in the center which supports the walking-beam and acts as a fulcrum. 
A mowing-machine wheel is keyed to one end of a round iron shaft. 
The other end of this shaft turns in a boxing which is swiveled to a 
short post as shown at B. See also detail "B.". The two plunger 
shafts are shown at A A. The mule is hitched to the round iron 
shaft near the traveling wheel by means of a round hook. As the 
mule walks around in a circle the shaft revolves and operates the 
crank B. There are side guys not shown in the drawing to keep the 
walking-beam in position. 

A mowing-machine wheel is keyed to the outer end 
of the tumbling rod. At the crank end is a babbitted 
boxing with a bolt attachment reaching down into the 
top of a short post set solidly into the ground, directly 
under the inner end of the walking-beam. This bolt 
permits the boxing to revolve with a swivel motion. 
Another swivel connects the upper end of the pitman 
shaft with the walking-beam. The whiffletree is at- 
tached to the tumbling rod by an iron hook. This hook 
is held in place by two iron collars fastened to the 



86 FARM MECHANICS 

tumbling rod by means of keys or set-screws. The 
mowing-machine drive wheel travels around in a cir- 
cle behind the mule turning the shaft which works the 
walking-beam and operates the pump. It would be 
difficult to design another horse or mule power so 
cheap and simple and effective. The mule grows wise 
after a while, so it is necessary to use a blindfold, or he 
will soldier on the job. With a little encouragement 
from a whip occasionally a mule will walk around and 
around for hours pulling the mowing-machine wheel 
after him. 

HORSEPOWER 

One horsepower is a force sufficient to lift 33,000 
pounds one foot high in one minute. 

The term "horsepower" in popular use years ago 
meant a collection of gear-wheels and long levers with 
eight or ten horses solemnly marching around in a cir- 
cle with a man perched on a platform in the center in 
the capacity of umpire. 

This was the old threshing-machine horsepower. It 
was the first real success in pooling many different 
farm power units to concentrate the combined effort 
upon one important operation. 

Not many horses are capable of raising 33,000 
pounds one foot in one minute every minute for an 
hour or a day. Some horses are natural-born slackers 
with sufficient acumen to beat the umpire at his own 
game. Some horses walk faster than others, also 
horses vary in size and capacity for work. But during 
a busy time each horse was* counted as one horsepower, 
and they were only eight or ten in number. And it so 
developed that the threshing horsepower had limita- 
tions which the separator outgrew. 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 



87 



The old threshing horsepower has been superseded 
by steam engines and gasoline and kerosene power, but 
horses are more important than ever. 

Farm horses are larger and more powerful ; they are 
better kept, better trained, and hitched to better ma- 
chinery, because it pays. One man drives three 1,600,- 
pound draft horses as fast as he used to drive two 




Figure 109. 



-Horse Power, showing the manner of attaching the 
braced lever to the bull wheel. 



1,000-pound general-purpose horses. The three draft- 
ers make play of a heavy load, while the two light 
horses worry themselves poor and accomplish little. 
Modern farm machinery is heavier, it cuts wider and 
digs deeper and does more thorough work. Modern 
farm requirements go scientifically into the proper cul- 
tivation and preparation of soil to increase fertility. 
Old methods used up fertility until the land refused 
to produce profitably. 



88 FARM MECHANICS 

Although the old familiar horsepower has been 
greatly outclassed, it has not been discarded. There 
are many small horsepowers in use for elevating grain, 
baling hay, cutting straw for feed and bedding, grind- 
ing feed and other light work where engine power is 
not available. 

WATER-POWER 

Water-power is the most satisfactory of all kinds of 
stationary farm power, when a steady stream of water 
may be harnessed to a good water-wheel. It is not a 
difficult engineering feat to throw a dam across a small 
stream and take the water out into a penstock to sup- 
ply water to a turbine water-wheel. In the first place 
it is necessary to measure the flow of water to deter- 
mine the size of water-wheel which may be used to ad- 
vantage. In connection with the flow of water it is also 
important to know the fall. Water is measured by 
what is termed a "weir. " It is easily made by cutting 
an oblong notch in a plank placed across the stream, as 
a temporary dam which raises the water a few inches 
to get a steady, even flow of water through the notch 
so that calculations may be made in miner's inches. 
The term ' ' miner 's inch ' ' is not accurate, but it comes 
near enough for practical purposes. Measuring the 
volume of water should be done during a dry time in 
summer. 

The fall of the stream is easily measured by means 
of a carpenter 's level and a stake. The stake is driven 
into the ground at a point downstream where water 
may be delivered to the wheel and a tailrace established 
to the best advantage. Sighting over the level to a 
mark on the stake will show the amount of fall. When 
a manufacturer of water-wheels has the amount of wa- 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 89 

ter and the fall, he can estimate the size and character 
of wheel to supply. The penstock may be vertical or 
placed on a slant. A galvanized pipe sufficient to carry 
the necessary amount of water may be laid along the 
bank, but it should be thoroughly well supported be- 
cause a pipe full of water is heavy, and settling is 
likely to break a joint. 

Galvanized piping for a farm penstock is not nec- 
essarily expensive. It may be made at any tin shop 
and put together on the ground in sections. The only 
difficult part about it is soldering the under side of 
the joints, but generally it may be rolled a little to one 
side until the bottom of the seam is reached. 

The most satisfactory way to carry power from the 
water-wheel to the farm buildings is by means of elec- 
tricity. The dynamo may be coupled to the water- 
wheel and wires carried any required distance. 

The work of installing electric power machinery is 
more a question of detail than mechanics or electrical 
engineering. The different appliances are bought from 
the manufacturer and placed where they are needed. 
It is principally a question of expense and quantity of 
electricity needed or developed. If the current is used 
for power, then a motor is connected with the dynamo 
and current from the dynamo drives the motor. A 
dynamo may be connected with the water-wheel shaft 
at the source of power and the motor may be placed in 
the power-house or any of the other buildings. 

The cost of farm waterworks depends principally 
on the amount of power developed. Small machinery 
may be had for a few hundred dollars, but large, pow- 
erful machinery is expensive. If the stream is large 
and considerable power is going to waste it might pay 
to put in a larger plant and sell current to the neigh- 



90 FARM MECHANICS 

bors for electric lighting and for power purposes. 
Standard machinery is manufactured for just such 
plants. 

The question of harnessing a stream on your own 
land when you control both banks is a simple business 
proposition. If anyone else can set up a plausible plea 
of riparian rights, flood damage, interstate complica- 
tions or interference with navigation, it then becomes 
a question of litigation to be decided by some succeed- 
ing generation. 

STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE 

Farm engines usually are of two different types, 
steam engines and gasoline or oil engines. Steam sta- 
tionary engines are used on dairy farms because steam 
is the best known means of keeping a dairy clean and 
sanitary. The boiler that furnishes power to run the 
engine also supplies steam to heat water and steam for 
sterilizing bottles, cans and other utensils. 

For some unaccountable reason steam engines are 
more reliable than gasoline engines. At the same time 
they require more attention, that is, the boilers do. 
Steam engines have been known to perform their tasks 
year after year without balking and without repairs 
or attention of any kind except to feed steam and oil 
into the necessary parts, and occasionally repack the 
stuffing boxes. 

On the other hand, boilers require superintendence 
to feed them with both fuel and water. The amount 
of time varies greatly. If the boiler is very much 
larger than the engine, that is, if the boiler is big 
enough to furnish steam for two such engines, it will 
furnish steam for one engine and only half try. This 
means that the fireman can raise 40 or 60 pounds of 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 91 

steam and attend to his other work around the dairy 
or barn. 

Where steam boilers are required for heating water 
and furnishing steam to scald cans and wash bottles, 
the boiler should be several horsepower larger than the 
engine requirements. There is no objection to this 
except that a large boiler costs more than a smaller 
one, and that more steam is generated than is actually 
required to run the engine. The kind of work re- 
quired of a boiler and engine must determine the size 
and general character of the installation. 

Portable boilers and engines are not quite so satis- 
factory as stationary, but there are a great many por- 
table outfits that give good satisfaction, and there is 
the advantage of moving them to the different parts of 
the farm when power is required for certain purposes. 

SMALL GASOLINE ENGINES 

A gasoline engine of 2y 2 horsepower is the most use- 
ful size for a general purpose farm engine. It is con- 
venient to run the pump, washing-machine, fanning- 
mill, cream-separator, grindstone, and other similar 
farm chores that have heretofore always been done by 
human muscle. A small engine may be placed on a 
low-down truck and moved from one building to an- 
other by hand. One drive belt 20 or 30 feet long, mak- 
ing a double belt reach of 12 or 15 feet, will answer 
for each setting. 

The engine once lined up to hitch onto the pulley of 
any stationary machine is all that is necessary. When 
the truck is once placed in proper position the wheels 
may be blocked by a casting of concrete molded into a 
depression in the ground in front and behind each 



92 FARM MECHANICS 

wheel. These blocks are permanent so that the truck 
may be pulled to the same spot each time. 

A gasoline engine for farm use is expected to run 
by the hour without attention. For this reason it 
should have a good, reliable hit and miss governor to 
regulate the speed, as this type is the most economical 
in fuel. It should have a magneto in addition to a 




Figure 110. — Kerosene Farm Engine. This is a very compact type 
of engine with heavy flywheels. A longer base might sit steadier 
on a wagon, but for stationary use on a solid concrete pier it gives 
good service. 

six-cell dry battery. It should be equipped with an 
impulse starter, a device that eliminates all starting 
troubles. The engine should be perfectly balanced so 
as to insure smooth running, which adds materially to 
the life of the engine. With a good, solid pump jack, 
a 2y 2 horsepower engine will pump water until the 
tank is full, whether it requires one hour or half a 
day. 

It is easily moved to the dairy house to run the 
separator. As the cream-separator chore comes along 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 93 

regularly every night and every morning, the engine 
and truck would naturally remain inside of the dairy 
house more than any other place. If the dairy house 
is too small to let the engine in, then an addition is 
necessary, for the engine must be kept under cover. 
The engine house should have some artistic pretensions 
and a coat of paint. 

KEROSENE PORTABLE ENGINES 

The kerosene engine is necessarily of the throttle 
governor type in order to maintain approximately uni- 
form high temperature at all times, so essential to the 
proper combustion of kerosene fuel. Therefore, a kero- 
sene engine of the hit-and-miss type should be avoided. 
However, there are certain classes of work where a 
throttle governor engine is at a decided disadvantage, 
such as sawing wood, because a throttle governor en- 
gine will not go from light load to full load as quickly 
as will a hit-and-miss type, and consequently chokes 
down much easier, causing considerable loss of time. 

A general purpose portable kerosene engine is ad- 
mirably suited to all work requiring considerable horse- 
power and long hours of service with a fairly steady 
load, such as tractor work, threshing, custom feed 
grinding, irrigating and silo filling. There will be a 
considerable saving in fuel bill over a gasoline engine 
if the engine will really run with kerosene, or other 
low-priced fuel, without being mixed with gasoline. 

In choosing a kerosene engine, particular attention 
should be paid to whether or not the engine can be run 
on all loads without smoking. Unless this can be done, 
liquid fuel is entering the cylinder which will cause ex- 
cessive wear on the piston and rings. A good kerosene 
engine should show as clean an exhaust as when operat- 



94 FARM MECHANICS 

ing on gasoline and should develop approximately as 
much horsepower. Another feature is harmonizing the 
fuel oil and the lubricating oil so that one will not 
counteract the effects of the other. 

PORTABLE FARM ENGINE AND TRUCK 

A convenient arrangement for truck and portable 
power for spraying, sawing wood and irrigation pump- 
ing, is shown in the accompanying illustration. The 
truck is low down, which keeps the machinery within 




Figure 111. — (Portable Farm Engine. This engine is permanently 
mounted on a low wheel truck wagon. The saw frame is detachable 
and the same truck is used for spraying and other work. 

reach. The wheels are well braced, which tends to 
hold the outfit steady when the engine is running. The 
saw table is detachable. When removed, the spraying 
tank bolts on to the same truck frame ; also the elevated 
table with the railing around it, where the men stand 
to spray large apple trees, is bolted onto the wagon 
bed. 

Spraying never was properly done until the power- 
ful engine and high pressure tanks were invented. 
Spraying to be effective, should be fine as mist, which 
requires a pressure of 150 pounds. There may be a 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 95 

number of attachments to a spraying outfit of this 
kind. A pipe suspended under the frame with a noz- 
zle for each row is used to spray potatoes, strawberry 
vines and other low down crops that are grown in rows. 
When not in use as a portable engine it is blocked 
firmly into place to run the regular stationary farm 
machinery. 

HYDRAULIC RAM 

The hydraulic ram is a machine that gets its power 
from the momentum of running water. A ram consists 
of a pipe of large diameter, an air chamber and an- 
other pipe of small diameter, all connected by means of 
valves to encourage the flow of water in two different 
directions. A supply of running water with a fall of 
at least two feet is run through a pipe several inches 
in diameter reaching from above the dam to the hy- 
draulic ram, where part of the flow enters the air 
chamber of the ram. Near the foot of the large pipe, 
or at what might be called the tailrace, is a peculiarly 
constructed valve that closes when running water 
starts to pass through it. When the large valve closes 
the water stops suddenly, which causes a back-pressure 
sufficient to lift a check- valve to admit a certain 
amount of water from the large supply pipe into the 
air-chamber of the ram. 

After the flow of water is checked, the foot-valve 
drops of its own weight, which again starts the flow 
of water through the large pipe, and the process is 
repeated a thousand or a million times, each time forc- 
ing a little water through the check-valve into the air 
chamber of the ram. The water is continually being 
forced out into the small delivery pipe in a constant 
stream because of the steady pressure of the impris- 
oned air in the air-chamber which acts as a cushion. 



9G 



FARM MECHANICS 



This imprisoned air compresses after each kick and ex 
pands between kicks in a manner intended to force a 
more or less steady flow of water through the small 
pipe. The air pressure is maintained by means of a 
small valve that permits a little air to suck in with the 
supply of water. 



Water Level 




£22 



Figure 112. — Hydraulic Ram. The upper drawing shows how to 
install the ram. The lower drawing is a detail section through the 
center of the ram. Water flows downhill through. the supply pipe. 
The intermittent action of the valve forces a portion of the water 
through another valve into the air-chamber. Air pressure forces 
this water out through delivery pipe. Another valve spills the waste 
water over into the tailrace. An automatic air-valve intermittently 
admits air into the air-chamber. 



Water may be conveyed uphill to the house by this 
means, sometimes to considerable distance. The size 
of the ram and its power to lift water depends upon 
the amount of water at the spring and the number of 
feet of fall. In laying the small pipe, it should be 
placed well down under ground to keep it cool in sum- 
mer and to bury it beyond the reach of winter frost. 
At the upper end where the water is delivered a stor- 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 97 

age tank with an overflow is necessary^ so the water 
can run away when not being drawn for use. A con- 
stant supply through a ram demands a constant deliv- 
ery. It is necessary to guard the water intake at the 
dam. A fence protection arounct the supply pool to 
keep live-stock or wild animals out is the first measure 
of precaution. A fine screen surrounding the upper 
end of the pipe that supplies water to the ram is neces- 
sary to keep small trash from interfering with the 
valves. 

THE FARM TRACTOR 

Farm tractors are becoming practical. Most the- 
ories have had a try out, the junk pile has received 
many failures and the fittest are about to survive. 
Now, if the manufacturers will standardize the rating 
and the important parts and improve their selling or- 
ganizations the whole nation will profit. The success- 
ful tractors usually have vertical engines with four 
cylinders. They are likely to have straight spur trans- 
mission gears, and a straight spur or chain drive, all 
carefully protected from dust. And they will have 
considerable surface bearing to avoid packing the soil. 
Some tractors carry their weight mostly upon the drive 
wheels — a principle that utilizes weight to increase 
traction. Other tractors exert a great deal of energy 
in forcing a small, narrow front steering-wheel through 
the soft ground. Any farmer who has pushed a loaded 
wheelbarrow knows what that means. Some kerosene 
tractors require a large percentage of gasoline. The 
driver may be as much to blame as the engine. But 
it should be corrected. 

Manufacturers should do more educational work and 
talk less about the wonderfully marvelous and mar- 
velously wonderful. Salesmen should study mechanics 



98 



FARM MECHANICS 



instead of oratory. Tractor efficiency should be rated 
practically instead of theoretically. The few actual 




Figure 113. — Tractor Transmission Gear. Spur gears are the most 
satisfactory for heavy work. 

reports of performance have emanated from tests with 
new machines in the hands of trained demonstrators. 
Manufacturers include belt power work among the 



GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 



99 



virtues of farm tractors, and they enumerate many 
light jobs, such as running a cream-separator, sawing 
wood, pumping water and turning the fanning-mill. 
Well, a farm tractor can do such work — yes. So can 
an elephant push a baby carriage. If manufacturers 




Figure 114. 



-Straight Transmission Gear, forward and chain drive 
reverse, for traction engine. 



would devise a practical means of using electricity as 
an~intermediary, and explain to farmers how a day's 
energy may be stored in practical working batteries to 
be paid out in a week, then we could understand why 
we should run a 20 horsepower engine to operate a 
cream-separator one hour at night and another hour in 
the morning. 



CHAPTER IV 

DEIVEN MACHINES 
FARM WATERWORKS 

Every farm has its own water supply. Some are 
very simple, others are quite elaborate. It is both 
possible and practical for a farmer to have his own 
tap water under pressure on the same plan as the city. 
When good water is abundant within 75 feet of the 
surface of the ground the farm supply may be had 
cheaper and better than the city. Even deep well 
pumping is practical with good machinery rightly in- 
stalled. Farm waterworks should serve the house and 
the watering troughs under a pressure of at least 40 
pounds at the ground level. The system should also 
include water for sprinkling the lawn and for irrigat- 
ing the garden. If strawberries or other intensive 
money crops are grown for market there should be 
sufficient water in the pipes to save the crop in time of 
drouth. These different uses should all be credited 
to the farm waterworks system pro rata, according to 
the amounts used by the different departments of the 
farm. The books would then prove that the luxury of 
hot and cold running water in the farmhouse costs less 
than the average city family pays. 

Three Systems of Water Storage. — The first plan 
adopted for supplying water under pressure on farms 
was the overhead tank. The water was lifted up into 
the tank by a windmill and force pump. Because wind 

100 



DRIVEN MACHINES 101 

power proved rather uncertain farmers adopted the 
gasoline engine, usually a two horsepower engine. 

The second water storage plan was the air-tight steel 
water-tank to be placed in the cellar or in a pit under- 
ground. The same pump and power supplies the water 
for this system, but it also requires an air-pump to sup- 
ply pressure to force the water out of the tank. 

The third plan forces the water out of the well by air 
pressure, as it is needed for use. No water pump is 
required in this system; the air-compressor takes its 
place. 

Suction-Pumps. — The word suction, when applied to 
pumps, is a misnomer. The principle upon which such 
pumps work is this : The pump piston drives the air 
out of the pump cylinder which produces a vacuum. 
The pressure of the atmosphere is about fifteen pounds 
per square inch of surface. This pressure forces suffi- 
cient water up through the so-called suction pipe to fill 
the vacuum in the cylinder. The water is held in the 
cylinder by foot-valves or clack-valves. As the piston 
again descends into the cylinder it plunges into water 
instead of air. A foot-valve in the bottom end of the 
hollow piston opens while going down and closes to 
hold and lift the water as the piston rises. Water 
from the well is forced by atmospheric pressure to fol- 
low the piston and the pump continues to lift water so 
long as the joints remain air-tight. The size of piston 
and length of stroke depend on the volume of water 
required, the height to which it must be lifted and the 
power available. A small power and a small cylinder 
will lift a small quantity of water to a considerable 
height. But increasing the volume of water requires a 
larger pump and a great increase in the power to op- 
erate it. The size of the delivery pipe has a good deal 



102 



FARM MECHANICS 




Figure 115. — The Farm Pump. It superseded the iron-bound 
bucket, the slimy old bucket, the malaria-lined bucket that hung 
in the well, but it wore out the women. Oil was never wasted on its 
creaking joints. Later it was fitted with a stuffing-box and an air- 
chamber, and the plunger was hitched to the windmill. 

To the right are shown two kinds of post-hole diggers. The upper 
digger is sometimes used to clear the fine earth out of the bottom 
of a hole dug by the lower digger. 



to do with the. flow of water. When water is forced 
through a small pipe at considerable velocity, there is a 
good deal of friction. Often the amount of water de- 



DRIVEN MACHINES 



103 



livered is reduced because the discharge pipe is too 
small. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
capacity four times. Square turns in the discharge 
pipe are obstructions ; either the pipe must be larger 
or there will be a diminished flow of water. Some 
pump makers are particular to furnish easy round 
bends instead of the ordinary right-angled elbows. A 
great many pumps are working under unnecessary 





Figure 116.- 



-Hand Force-Pump. Showing two ways of attaching 
wooden handles to hand force-pumps. 



handicaps, simply because either the supply pipe or 
discharge pipe is not in proportion to the capacity of 
the pump, or the arrangement of the pipes is faulty. 
Eotary Pumps. — A twin-chamber rotary pump ad- 
mits water at the bottom of the chamber and forces it 
out through the top. Intermeshing cogs and rotary 
cams revolve outward from the center at the bottom, as 
shown by the arrows in Figure 118. The stream of 
water is divided by the cams, as it enters the supply 
pipe at the bottom, and half of the water is carried 
each way around the outsides of the double chamber. 
These streams of water meet at the top of the cham- 
ber, where they unite to fill the discharge pipe. These 



104 



FARM MECHANICS 




Figure 117. — Rotary Pump. Twin water-chamber rotary pumps 
take water through the bottom and divide the supply, carrying half 
of the stream around to the left and the other half to the right. 
The two streams meet and are discharged at the top. 




Figure 118. — Section of Rotary Pump. 



DRIVEN MACHINES 105 

pumps operate without air-chambers and supply water 
in a continuous stream. They may be speeded up to 
throw water under high pressure for fire fighting, but 
for economy in ordinary use the speed is kept down to 
200 revolutions, or thereabout. Rotary pumps are also 
made with one single water chamber cylinder. The 
pump head, or shaft, is placed a little off center. A 
double end cam moves the water. Both ends of the 
cam fit against the bore of the cylinder. It works 
loosely back and forth through a slotted opening in the 
pump head. As the shaft revolves the eccentric motion 
of the double cam changes the sizes of the water-pock- 
ets. The pockets are largest at the intake and smallest 
at the discharge. Rotary pumps are comparatively 
cheap, as regards first cost, but they are not economi- 
cal of power. In places where the water-table is near 
the surface of the ground they will throw water in a 
very satisfactory manner. But they are more used in 
refineries and factories for special work, such as pump- 
ing oil and other heavy liquids. 

Centrifugal Pumps. — The invention and improve- 
ment of modern centrifugal pumps has made the lift- 
ing of water in large quantities possible. These pumps 
are constructed on the turbine principle. Water is 
lifted in a continuous stream by a turbine wheel re- 
volving under high speed. Water is admitted at the 
center and discharged at the outside of the casing. 
Centrifugal pumps work best at depths ranging from 
twenty to sixty feet. Manufacturers claim that farm- 
ers can afford to lift irrigation water sixty feet with a 
centrifugal pump driven by a kerosene engine. 

The illustrations show the principle upon which the 
pump works and the most approved way of setting 



106 FARM MECHANICS 

pumps and engines. Centrifugal pumps usually are 
set in dry wells a few feet above the water-table. While 
these pumps have a certain amount of suction, it is 
found that short supply pipes are much more efficient. 
Where water is found in abundance within from 15 to 
30 feet of the surface, and the wells may be so con- 
structed that the pull-down, or the lowering of the 




Figure 119. — Centrifugal Pump. This style of pump is used in 
many places for irrigation. It runs at high speed, which varies 
according to the size of the pump. It takes water at the center and 
discharges it at the outside of the casing. 

water while pumping is not excessive, then it is pos- 
sible to lift water profitably to irrigate crops in the 
humid sections. Irrigation in such cases, in the East, is 
more in the nature of insurance against drouth. Valu- 
able crops, such as potatoes and strawberries, may be 
made to yield double, or better, by supplying plenty 
of moisture at the critical time in crop development. 
It is a new proposition in eastern farming that is likely 
to develop in the near future. 



DRIVEN MACHINES 



107 



Air Pressure Pump. — Instead of pumping water out 
of the well some farmers pump air into the well to force 
the water out. A double compartment cylindrical tank 
is placed in the water in the well. These tanks are con- 
nected with the farm water distributing system to be 
carried in pipes to the house and to the stock stables. 
Air under a pressure of from 50 to 100 pounds per 



Check Valve-*- 




Air Compressor ^G asoline En gine, 

'Drain Cock c To Water" 

Distribution 5ystem j 

Submerged Pump 

Figure 120. — Air Pressure Pump. Pumping water by air pressure 
requires a large air container capable of resisting a pressure of 100 
pounds per square inch. This illustration shows the pressure tank, 
engine, air-compressor, well and submerged pump. 

square inch is stored in a steel tank above ground. 
Small gas-pipes connect this air pressure tank with 
the air-chamber of the- air-water tank in the well. A 
peculiar automatic valve regulates the air so that it 
enters the compartment that is filled, or partly filled, 
with water, and escapes from the empty one so the two 
compartments work together alternately. That is, the 
second chamber fills with water, while the first cham- 
ber is being drawn upon. Then the first chamber 
fills while the second is being emptied. This system 



108 FARM MECHANICS 

will work in a well as small as eight inches in diameter, 
and to a depth of 140 feet. It might be made to work 
at a greater depth, but it seems hardly practical to 
do so for the reason that, after allowing for friction in 
the pipes, 100 pounds of air pressure is necessary to 
lift water 150 feet. An air tank of considerable size is 
needed to provide storage for sufficient air to operate 
the system without attention for several days. Care- 
ful engineering figures are necessary to account for 
the different depths of farm wells, and the various 
amounts of water and power required. For instance : 
The air tank already contains 1,000 gallons of air at 
atmospheric pressure — then : Forcing 1,000 gallons of 
atmospheric air into a 1,000-gallon tank will give a 
working pressure of 15 pounds per square inch ; 2,000 
gallons, 30 pounds ; 3,000 gallons, 45 pounds, and so on. 
Therefore, a pressure of 100 pounds in a 1,000-gallon 
tank (42 inches by 14 feet) would require 6,600 gallons 
of free atmosphere, in addition to the original 1,000 
gallons, and the tank would then contain 1,000 gallons 
of compressed air under a working pressure of 100 
pounds per square inch. A one cylinder compressor 
6 inches by 6 inches, operating at a speed of 200 R.P.M. 
would fill this tank to a working pressure of 100 
pounds in about 50 minutes. One gallon of air will 
deliver one gallon of water at the faucet. But the 
air must have the same pressure as the water, and there 
must be no friction. Thus, one gallon of air under a 
working pressure of forty-five pounds, will, theoretic- 
ally, deliver one gallon of water to a height of 100 feet. 
But it takes three gallons of free air to make one gal- 
lon of compressed air at forty-five pounds pressure. 
If the lift is 100 feet, then 1,000 gallons of air under a 



DRIVEN MACHINES 



109 



pressure of forty-five pounds will theoretically deliver 
1,000 gallons of water. Practically, the air tank would 
have to be loaded to a very much greater pressure to 




. Figure 121. — (1) Single-Gear Pump Jack. This type of jack is 
used for wells from 20 to 40 feet deep. (2) Double-Gear, or 
Multiple-Gear Pump Jack. This is a rather powerful jack designed 
for deep wells or for elevating water into a high water-tank. 



secure the 1,000 gallons of water before losing the 
elasticity of the compressed air. If one thousand gal- 
lons of water is needed on the farm every day, then 
the air pump would have to work about one hour each 



110 



FARM MECHANICS 




Figure 122. — Post Pump Jack. This arrangement is used in fac- 
tories when floor space is valuable. The wide-face driving-pulley is 
shown to the left. 




Figure 123. — Three Jacks for Different Purposes. At the left is a 
reverse motion jack having the same speed turning either right or 
left. The little jack in the center is for light work at high belt 
speed. To the right is a powerful jack intended for slow speeds 
such as hoisting or elevating grain. 



morning. This may not be less expensive than pump- 
ing the water directly, but it offers the advantage of 
water fresh from the well. Pure air pumped into the 
well tends to keep the water from becoming stale. 



DRIVEN MACHINES 111 

Pump Jacks and Speed Jacks. — Farm pumps and 
speed-reducing jacks are partners in farm pumping. 




Figure 124. — Speed Jack, for reducing speed between engine and 
tumbling rod or to increase speed between tumbling rod and the 
driven machine. 




Figure 125. — The Speed Jack on the left is used either to reduce 
or increase tumbling rod speed and to reverse the motion. The 
Speed Jack on the right transfers power either from belt to tumbling 
rod or reverse. It transforms high belt speed to low tumbling rod 
speed, or vice versa. 

Force-pumps should not run faster than forty strokes 
per minute. Considerable power is required to move 
the piston when the water is drawn from a deep well 



112 FARM MECHANICS 

and forced into an overhead tank. Jacks are manufac- 
tured which bolt directly to the pump, and there are 
pumps and jacks built together. A pump jack should 
have good, solid gearing to reduce the speed. Spur- 
gearing is the most satisfactory. Bevel-gears are waste- 
ful of power when worked under heavy loads. Power 
to drive a pump jack is applied to a pulley at least 
twelve inches in diameter with a four-inch face when 
belting is used. If a rope power conveyor is used, 
then pulleys of larger diameters are required to con- 
vey the same amount of power. 

Only general terms may be used in describing the 
farm pump, because the conditions differ in each case. 
Generally speaking, farmers fail to appreciate the 
amount of power used, and they are more than likely 
to buy a jack that is too light. Light machinery may 
do the work, but it goes to pieces quicker, while a heavy 
jack with solid connections will operate the pump year 
in and year out without making trouble. For in- 
creasing or reducing either speed or power some kind 
of jack is needed. All farm machines have their best 
speed. A certain number of revolutions per minute 
will accomplish more and do better work than any 
other speed. To apply power to advantage speed jacks 
have been invented to adjust the inaccuracies between 
driver and driven. 

IRRIGATION BY PUMPING 

The annual rainfall in the United States varies in 
different parts of the country from a few inches to a 
few feet. Under natural conditions some soils get too 
much moisture and some too little. Irrigation is em- 
ployed to supply the deficiency and drainage, either 



DRIVEN MACHINES 



113 



natural or artificial, carries off the excess. Irrigation 
and drainage belong together. Irrigation fills the soil 
with moisture and drainage empties it. Thus, a con- 
dition is established that supplies valuable farm plants 
with both air and moisture. In the drier portions of 
the United States, nothing of value will grow without 




Figure 126. — Centrifugal Pump Setting. When used for irriga- 
tion, centrifugal pumps are set as close to the ground water as 
practical. 

irrigation. In the so-called humid districts deficiency 
of moisture at the critical time reduces the yield and 
destroys the profit. The value of irrigation has been 
demonstrated in the West, and the practice is working 
eastward. 

Irrigation is the new handmaiden of prosperity. A 
rainy season is a bountiful one. Irrigation supplies 
the bounty without encouraging 'destructive fungus 



114 FARM MECHANICS 

diseases. Where water is abundant within easy reach, 
pumping irrigation water is thoroughly practical. 
Improvements in pumps in recent years have increased 
their capacity and insured much greater reliability. 
A centrifugal pump is recommended for depths down 
to 75 feet ; beyond this depth the necessity of installing 
more expensive machinery places the business of pump- 
ing for irrigation on a different plane. A centrifugal 
pump will throw more water with less machinery than 
any other device, but like all other mechanical inven- 
tions, it has its limitations. In figuring economical 
pumping, the minimum quantity should be at least 100 
gallons per minute, because time is an object, and irri- 
gation, if done at all, should cover an area sufficient to 
bring substantial returns. Centrifugal pumps should 
be placed near the surface of the water in the well. 
For this reason, a large, dry well is dug down to 
the level of the water-table and the pump is solidly 
bolted to a concrete foundation built on the bottom of 
this well. A supply pipe may be extended any depth 
below the pump, but the standing water surface in the 
well should reach within a few feet of the pump. The 
pump and supply must be so well balanced against 
each other that the pull-down from pumping will not 
lower the water-level in the well more than twenty feet 
below the pump. The nearer the ground water is to 
the pump the better. 

The water well below the pump may be bored, or a 
perforated well pipe may be driven; or several well 
points may be connected. The kind of well must de- 
pend upon the condition of the earth and the nature 
of the water supply. Driven wells are more successful 
when water is found in a stratum of coarse gravel. 



DRIVEN MACHINES 115 

Before buying irrigation machinery, it is a good 
plan to test the water supply by temporary means. 
Any good farm pump may be hitched to a gasoline en- 
gine to determine if the water supply is lasting or not. 
Permanent pumping machinery should deliver the wa- 
ter on high ground. A main irrigation ditch may be 
run across the upper end of the field. This ditch 
should hold the water high enough so it may be tapped 
at convenient places to run through the corrugations to 
reach the roots of the plants to be benefited. There are 
different systems of irrigation designed to fit different 
soils. Corrugations are the cheapest and the most 
satisfactory when soils are loose enough to permit the 
water to soak into the soil sideways, as well as to sink 
down. The water should penetrate the soil on both 
sides of the corrugations for distances of several inches. 
Corrugations should be straight and true and just far 
enough apart so the irrigation water will soak across 
and meet between. Some soils will wash or gully out 
if the fall is too rapid. In such cases it may be neces- 
sary to terrace the land by following the natural con- 
tour around the ridges so the water may flow gently. 
Where the fall is very slight, that is, where the ground 
is so nearly level that it slopes away less than six inches 
in a hundred feet, it becomes necessary to prepare the 
land by building checks and borders to confine the 
water for a certain length of time. Then it is let out 
into the next check. In the check and border system 
the check bank on the lower side has an opening which 
is closed during the soaking period with a canvas dam. 
When the canvas is lifted the water flows through and 
fills the next check. This system is more expensive, 
and it requires more knowledge of irrigation to get it 



116 FARM MECHANICS 

started, and it is not likely to prove satisfactory in the 
East. 

For fruits and vegetables, what is known as the fur- 
row system of irrigation is the most practical. An or- 
chard is irrigated by plowing furrows on each side of 
each row of trees. The water is turned into these fur- 
rows and it runs across the orchard like so many little 
rivulets. Potatoes are irrigated on the same plan by 
running water through between the rows after the po- 
tatoes have been ridged by a double shovel-plow. This 
plan also works well with strawberries. After the land 
is prepared for irrigation, the expense of supplying 
water to a fruit orchard, strawberry patch or potato 
field is very little compared with the increase in yield. 
In fact, there are seasons when one irrigation will save 
the crop and produce an abundant yield, when other- 
wise it would have been almost a total loss. 

Overhead Spray Irrigation. — The most satisfactory 
garden irrigation is the overhead spray system. Posts 
are set ten feet apart in rows 50 feet apart. Water 
pipes are laid on the tops of the posts and held loosely 
in position by large staples. These water pipes are 
perforated by drilling a line of small holes about three 
feet apart in a straight line along one side of the pipe. 
The holes are tapped and small brass nozzles are 
screwed in. The overhead pipes are connected with 
standpipes at the highest place, generally at the ends 
of the rows. The pipe-lines are loosely coupled to the 
standpipes to permit them to roll partly around to di- 
rect the hundreds of spray nozzles as needed. 

Six feet high is sufficient to throw a fine mist or 
spray twenty-five feet, which is far enough to meet the 
spray from the next row, so the ground will be com- 



DRIVEN MACHINES 



117 



pletely covered. To do this the pipes are rolled from 
one side to the other, through a 90 degree arc to throw 
the spray on both sides. The pipes usually are laid 
with a grade which follows down the slope of the land. 
A fall of one foot in fifty is sufficient. Water is always 



at tl 


ie upper 


end oi 


each pipe-ln 


25' 


so- SO' 


SO' Z5' 




i 




1 1 
H 


1 I; 






-200- 




J, 



Figure 127. — Overhead Irrigation. Diagram showing the arrange- 
ment of pipes for irrigating one acre of land. The pipes are sup- 
ported on posts six feet high. 



down by gravity, assisted by tank pressure. A pres- 
sure of about forty pounds is needed to produce a fine 
spray, and to send it across to meet the opposite jets. 
The little brass nozzles are drilled with about a one- 
eighth inch hollow. But the jet opening is small, 
about No. 20 W. G. This gives a wire-drawn stream 
that quickly vaporizes when it meets the resistance of 
the atmosphere. When properly installed a fine misty 
rain is created, which quickly takes the same tempera- 



118 FARM MECHANICS 

ture as the air, and settles so gently that the most 
delicate plants are not injured. 

Quantity of Water to Use. — Good judgment is neces- 
sary in applying water to crops in regard to quantity, 
as well as the time of making application. Generally 
speaking, it is better to wait until the crop really needs 
moisture. When the pump is started give the crop 
plenty with the expectation that one irrigation will be 
sufficient. Much depends upon the amount of moist- 
ure in the soil ; also the kind of crop and weather con- 
ditions enter into the problem. On sandy land that is 
very dry where drainage is good, water may be per- 
mitted to run in the corrugations for several days un- 
til the ground is thoroughly soaked. When potatoes 
are forming, or clover is putting down its big root sys- 
tem, a great deal of water is needed. Irrigation suffi- 
cient to make two inches of rainfall may be used to 
advantage for such crops under ordinary farming con- 
ditions. It is necessary after each irrigation to break 
the soil crust by cultivation to prevent evaporation. 
This is just as important after irrigation as it is after 
a rain shower. Also any little pockets that hold water 
must be carefully drained out, otherwise the crop will 
be injured by standing water. We are not supposed 
to have such pockets on land that has been prepared 
for irrigation. 

Kind of Crops to Irrigate. — Wheat, oats, barley, etc., 
may be helped with one irrigation from imminent fail- 
ure to a wealth of production. But these rainfall 
grain crops do not come under the general classifica- 
tion that interests the regular irrigation farmer beyond 
his diversity plans for producing considerable variety. 
Fruits, roots, clover, alfalfa, vegetables and Indian 
corn are money crops under irrigation. Certain seed 



DRIVEN MACHINES 119 

crops yield splendidly when watered. An apple or- 
chard properly cared for and irrigated just at the right 
time will pay from five hundred to a thousand dollars 
per acre. Small fruits are just as valuable. These' 
successes account for the high prices of irrigated land. 
In the East and in the great Middle West, valuable 
crops are cut short or ruined by drouth when the fruit 
or corn is forming. It makes no difference how much 
rain comes along at other times in the year, if the roots 
cannot find moisture at the critical time, the yield is 
reduced often below the profit of raising and harvest- 
ing the crop. Strawberry blossoms shrivel and die 
in the blooming when rain fails. Irrigation is better 
than rain for strawberries. Strawberries under irri- 
gation may be made to yield more bushels than potatoes 
under humid conditions. One hundred bushels of 
strawberries per acre sounds like a fairy tale, but it is 
possible on rich land under irrigation. 

The cost of pumping for irrigation, where the well 
and machinery is used for no other purpose, must be 
charged up to the crop. The items of expense are in- 
terest on the first cost of the pumping machinery, de- 
preciation, upkeep and running expenses. On East- 
ern farms, however, where diversified farming is the 
business, this expense may be divided among the dif- 
ferent lines of work. Where live-stock is kept, it is 
necessary to have a good, reliable water supply for 
the animals. A reservoir on high ground so water may 
be piped to the watering troughs and to the house is a 
great convenience. Also the same engine that does the 
pumping may be used for other work in connection 
with the farm, so that the irrigation pump engine, in- 
stead of lying idle ten or eleven months in the year, 
may be utilized to advantage and made to earn its keep. 



120 



FARM MECHANICS 



Well-water contains many impurities. For this rea- 
son, it is likely to be valuable for crop growing pur- 
poses in a wider sense than merely to supply moisture. 
Well-water contains lime, and lime is beneficial to most 
soils. It has been noticed that crops grow especially 
well when irrigated from wells. 





SUPPORT 



Figure 128. — Power Transmission. Circular motion is converted 
into reciprocating motion by the different lengths of the two pitman 
cranks which cause the upper wheel to oscillate. Power is carried 
to a distance by wires. To reduce friction the wires are supported 
by swinging hangers. Sometimes wooden rods are used instead of 
wires to lessen expansion and contraction. 



House and Barns Supplied from a Reservoir. — A 
farm reservoir may sometimes be built very cheaply 
by throwing a dam across a narrow hollow between two 
hills, or ridges. On other farms, it is necessary to 
scrape out a hole on the highest ground within reach. 
For easy irrigation a reservoir is necessary, and it is 
economical because the pump may work overtime and 



DRIVEN MACHINES 121 

supply enough water so the irrigation may be done 
quickly and with sufficient water to make it effective. 
When the cost of the reservoir can be charged up to 
the different departments of the business, such as irri- 
gation, live-stock and house use, the cost is divided and 
the profits are multiplied. 

Power Conveyor. — Circular motion is converted into 
reciprocal motion to operate a pump at a distance from 
the engine. The short jack crank oscillates the driving 
pulley to move the conveyor wires back and forth. The 
distance to which power may be carried is limited by 
the expansion and contraction of the conveying wires. 
Wooden rods are better under extremes of tempera- 
ture. Where an engine is used night and morning in 
the dairy house to run a cream separator, this kind of 
power transmission may be worked to operate the 
pump at the house. Light wire hangers will support 
the line wires or rods. They should be about three 
feet in length, made fast at top and bottom to prevent 
wear. The spring of a No. 10 wire three feet long is 
sufficient to swing the length of a pump stroke and the 
friction is practically nothing. 

ELECTRICITY ON THE FARM 

Electric current in some sections may be purchased 
from electric railways or city lighting plants. But the 
great majority of farms are beyond the reach of high 
tension transmission cables. In some places three or 
four farmers may club together and buy a small light- 
ing plant to supply their own premises with both light 
and power. Unless an engineer is employed to run it 
trouble is sure to follow, because one family does all of 
the work and others share equally in the benefits. The 
solution is for each farmer to install a small plant of 



122 



FARM MECHANICS 



his own. The proposition is not so difficult as it sounds. 
Two-horsepower plants are manufactured for this very 
purpose. But there is more to it than buying a dy- 
namo and a few lamp bulbs. A farm electric system 
should supply power to run all of the light stationary 
machinery about the farm, and that means storage 




Figure 129. — Electric Power Plant. A practical farm generator 
and storage battery, making a complete farm electric plant that will 
develop and store electricity for instant use in any or all of the 
farm buildings. 



batteries, and the use of one or more small electric mo- 
tors. There are several ways to arrange the plant, 
but to save confusion it is better to study first the stor- 
age battery plan and to start with an engine large 
enough to pump water and run the dynamo at the same 
time. It is a good way to do two jobs at once — you 
store water enough in the supply tank to last twenty- 
four or forty-eight hours, and at the same time you 



DRIVEN MACHINES 123 

store up sufficient electricity to run the cream-separa- 
tor for a week. Electric power is the only power that 
is steady enough to get all of the cream. 

Refrigeration is a profitable way to use electric pow- 
er. There are small automatic refrigerator machines 
that maintain low temperatures to preserve food prod- 
ucts. This branch of the work may be made profitable. 
Laundry work on the farm was principally hand labor 
until the small power washers and wringers were in- 
vented. Now a small electric motor takes the blue out 
of Monday, and the women wear smiles. Electric flat- 
irons afford the greatest comfort on Tuesday. The 
proper heat is maintained continually until the last 
piece is ironed. Cooking by electricity is another great 
success. Some women buy separate cooking utensils, 
such as toasters, chafing dishes and coffee percolators. 
Others invest in a regular electric cooking range at a 
cost of fifty dollars and feel that the money was well 
spent. It takes about 100 K.W.H. per month in hot 
weather to cook by electricity for a family of four. In 
winter, when heat is more of a luxury, the coal or wood 
range will save half of the electric current. Dishwash- 
ing by electricity is another labor-saver three times a 
day. Vacuum cleaners run by electricity take the dust 
and microbes out of floor rugs with less hand labor 
than pushing a carpet sweeper. Incubators are better 
heated by electricity than any other way. Brooders 
come under the same class. Sewing-machines were op- 
erated by electricity in sweatshops years ago — because 
it paid. Farm women are now enjoying the same privi- 
lege. 

Electric lighting on the farm is the most spectacular, 
if not the most interesting result of electric generation 
in the country. This feature of the subject was some- 



124 FARM MECHANICS 

what overtaxed by talkative salesmen representing 
some of the pioneer manufacturers of electric lighting 
plants, but the business has steadied down. Real elec- 
tric generating machinery is being manufactured and 
sold on its merits in small units. 

Not many miles from Chicago there is an electric 
lighting plant on a dairy farm that is giving satisfac- 
tion. The stables are large and they are managed on 
the plan of milking early in the morning and again in 
the middle of the afternoon. The morning work re- 
quires a great deal of light in the different stables, 
more light than ordinary, because the milking is done 
by machinery. The milking machine air-pump is 
driven by electricity generated on the farm, the power 
being supplied by a kerosene engine. 

Electricity on this farm is used in units, separate 
lines extending to the different buildings. The light- 
ing plant is operated on what is known as the 32-volt 
system ; the rating costs less to install than some others 
and the maintenance is less than when a higher volt- 
age is used. I noticed also that there are fewer parts 
in connection with the plant than in other electric light 
works that I have examined. 

Technical knowledge of electricity and its behavior 
under different circumstances is hardly necessary to a 
farmer, because the manufacturers have simplified the 
mechanics of electric power and lighting to such an ex- 
tent that it is only necessary to use ordinary precau- 
tion to run the plant to its capacity. 

At the same time it is just as well to know something 
about generators, switchboards and the meanings of 
such terms and names as volt, ampere, battery poles, 
voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, discharge switch, under- 



DRIVEN MACHINES 125 

load circuit breaker, false fuse blocks, etc., because 
familiarity with these names, and the parts they rep- 
resent gives the person confidence in charging the bat- 
teries. Such knowledge also supplies a reason for the 
one principal battery precaution, which is not to use 
out all of the electricity the batteries contain. 

Those who have electric lighting plants on the farm 
do not seem to feel the cost of running the plants, be- 
cause they use the engine for other purposes. Gen- 
erally manufacturers figure about 1 H.P. extra to run 
a dynamo to supply from 25 to 50 lights. My experi- 
ence with farm engines is that for ordinary farm work 
such as driving the cream separator, working the pump 
and grinding feed, a two-horse power engine is more 
useful than any other size. Farmers who conduct 
business in the usual way will need a three-horsepower 
engine if they contemplate adding an electric lighting 
system to the farm equipment. 

Among the advantages of an electric lighting sys- 
tem is the freedom from care on the part of the women. 
There are no lamps to clean or broken chimneys to cut 
a finger, so that when the system is properly installed 
the only work the women have to do is to turn the 
switches to throw the lights on or off as needed. 

The expense in starting a farm electric light plant 
may be a little more than some other installations, but 
it seems to be more economical in service when figured 
from a farmer's standpoint, taking into consideration 
the fact that he is using power for generating electric- 
ity that under ordinary farm management goes to 
waste. 

A three-horsepower engine will do the same amount 
of work with the same amount of gasoline that a two- 



126 FARM MECHANICS 

horsepower engine will do. This statement may not 
hold good when figured in fractions, but it will in farm 
practice. Also when running a pump or cream sepa- 
tor the engine is capable of doing a little extra work 
so that the storage batteries may be charged with very 
little extra expense. 

On one dairy farm a five-horsepower kerosene engine 
is used to furnish power for various farm purposes. 
The engine is belted to a direct-current generator of 
the shunt-wound type. The generator is wired to an 
electric storage battery of 88 ampere hour capacity. 
The battery is composed of a number of separate cells. 
The cells are grouped together in jars. These jars con- 
tain the working parts of the batteries. As each jar 
of the battery is complete in itself, any one jar may be 
cut out or another added without affecting the other 
units. The switchboard receives current either from 
the battery or from the engine and generator direct. 
There are a number of switches attached to the switch- 
board, which may be manipulated to turn the current 
in any direction desired. 

Some provision should be made for the renewal of 
electric lamps. Old lamps give less light than new 
ones, and the manufacturers should meet customers on 
some kind of a fair exchange basis. Tungsten lamps 
are giving good satisfaction for farm use. These 
lamps are economical of current, which means a reduc- 
tion of power to supply the same amount of light. The 
Mazda lamp is another valuable addition to the list of 
electric lamps. 

The Wisconsin Agriculturist publishes a list of 104 
different uses for electricity on farms. Many of the 
electrical machines are used for special detail work 
in dairies where cheese or butter is made in quantity. 



DRIVEN MACHINES 127 

Sugar plantations also require small units of power 
that would not apply to ordinary farming. Some of 
the work mentioned is extra heavy, such as threshing 
and cutting ensilage. Other jobs sound trivial, but 
they are all possible labor-savers. Here is the list : 

"Oat crushers, alfalfa mills, horse groomers, horse 
clippers, hay cutters, clover cutters, corn shellers, en- 
silage cutters, corn crackers, branding irons, currying 
machines, feed grinders, nailing machines, live stock 
food warmers, sheep shears, threshers, grain graders, 
root cutters, bone grinders, hay hoists, clover hullers, 
rice threshers, pea and bean hullers, gas-electric har- 
vesters, hay balers, portable motors for running thresh- 
ers, fanning-mills, grain elevators, huskers and shred- 
ders, grain drying machines, binder motors, wheat and 
corn grinders, milking machines, sterilizing milk, re- 
frigeration, churns, cream-separators, butter workers, 
butter cutting-printing, milk cooling and circulating 
pumps, milk clarifiers, cream ripeners, milk mixers, 
butter tampers, milk shakers, curd grinders, pasteuri- 
zers, bottle cleaners, bottle fillers, concrete mixers, 
cider mills, cider presses, spraying machines, wood 
splitters, auto trucks, incubators, hovers, telephones, 
electric bells, ice cutters, fire alarms, electric vehicles, 
electro cultures, water supply, pumping, water steril- 
izers, fruit presses, blasting magnetos, lighting, inte- 
rior telephones, vulcanizers, pocket flash lights, ice 
breakers, grindstones, emery wheels, wood saws, drop 
hammers, soldering irons, glue pots, cord wood saws, 
egg testers, burglar alarms, bell ringing transformers, 
devices for killing insects and pests, machine tools, 
molasses heaters, vacuum cleaners, portable lamps to 
attract insects, toasters, hot plates, grills, percolators, 
fiatirons, ranges, toilette articles, water heaters, fans, 



128 FARM MECHANICS 

egg boilers, heating pads, dishwashers, washing ma- 
chines, curling irons, forge blowers. ' ' 

GASOLINE HOUSE LIGHTING 

Gasoline gas for honse lighting is manufactured in a 
small generator by evaporating gasoline into gas and 
mixing it with air, about 5 per cent gas and 95 per cent 
air. "We are all familiar with the little brass gasoline 
torch heater that tinners and plumbers use to heat 
their soldering irons. The principle is the same. 

There are three systems of using gasoline gas for 
farmhouse lighting purposes, the hollow wire, tube sys- 
tem, and single lamp system. 

The hollow wire system carries the liquid gasoline 
through the circuit in a small pipe called a hollow wire. 
Each lamp on the circuit takes a few drops of gasoline 
as needed, converts it into gas, mixes the gas with the 
proper amount of air and produces a fine brilliant 
light. Each lamp has its own little generator and is 
independent of all other lamps on the line. 

The tube system of gasoline gas lighting is similar in 
appearance, but the tubes are larger and look more like 
regular gas pipes. In the tube system the gas is gener- 
ated and mixed with air before it gets into the distri- 
bution tube, so that lamps do not require separate gen- 
erators. 

In the separate lamp system each lamp is separate 
and independent. Each lamp has a small supply of 
gasoline in the base of the lamp and has a gas genera- 
tor attached to the burner, which converts the gasoline 
into gas, mixes it with the proper amount of air and 
feeds it into the burner as required. Farm lanterns are 
manufactured that work on this principle. They pro- 
duce a brilliant light. 



DRIVEN MACHINES 129 

By investigating the different systems of gasoline gas 
lighting in use in village stores and country homes any 
farmer can select the system that fits into his home con- 
ditions to the best advantage. In one farmhouse the 
owner wanted gasoline gas street lamps on top of his 
big concrete gateposts, and this was one reason why he 
decided to adopt gasoline gas lighting and to use the 
separate lamp system. 

ACETYLENE GAS 

Acetylene lighting plants are intended for country 
use beyond the reach of city gas mains or electric 
cables. Carbide comes in lump form in steel drums. It 
is converted into gas by a generator that is fitted with 
clock work to drop one or more lumps into water as gas 
is needed to keep up the pressure. Acetylene gas is 
said to be the purest of all illuminating gases. Experi- 
ments in growing delicate plants in greenhouses lighted 
with acetylene seem to prove this claim to be correct. 

The light also is bright, clear and powerful. The 
gas is explosive when mixed with air and confined, so 
that precautions are necessary in regard to using lan- 
terns or matches near the generators. The expense of 
installing an acetylene plant in a farm home has pre- 
vented its general use. 

WOOD-SAW FRAMES 

There are a number of makes of saw frames for use 
on farms, some of which are very simple, while others 
are quite elaborate. Provision usually is made for 
dropping the end of the stick as it is cut. Sometimes 
carriers are provided to elevate the blocks onto a pile. 
Extension frames to hold both ends of the stick give 
more or less trouble, because when the stick to be sawed 



130 FARM MECHANICS 

is crooked, it is almost impossible to prevent binding. 
If a saw binds in the kerf, very often the uniform set 
is pinched out of alignment, and there is some danger 
of buckling the saw, so that for ordinary wood sawing 
it is better to have the end of the stick project beyond 
the jig. If the saw is sharp and has the right set and 
the right motion, it will cut the stick off quickly and 
run free while the end is dropping to the ground. 

The quickest saw frames oscillate, being supported 
on legs that are hinged to the bottom of the frame. 
Oscillating frames work easier than sliding frames. 
Sliding frames are sometimes provided with rollers, 
but roller frames are not steady enough. For cross 
sawing lumber V-shaped grooves are best. No matter 
what the feeding device is, it should always be pro- 
tected by a hood over the saw. The frame should fall 
back of its own weight, bringing the hood with it, so 
that the saw is always covered except when actually 
engaged with the stick. Saw-mandrels vary in diame- 
ter and length, but in construction they are much 
alike. For wood sawing the shaft should be 1%" or 
l!/2" in diameter. The shaft runs in two babbitted- 
boxes firmly bolted to the saw frame. The frame itself 
should be well made and well braced. 

ROOT PULPER 

There are root pulpers with concave knives which 
slice roots in such a way as to bend the slices and break 
them into thousands of leafy shreds. The principle is 
similar to bending a number of sheets of paper so that 
each sheet will slide past the next one. Animals do 
not chew roots when fed in large solid pieces. Cattle 
choke trying to swallow them whole, but they will 
munch shredded roots with apparent patience and evi- 



DRIVEN MACHINES 131 

dent satisfaction. American farmers are shy on roots. 
They do not raise roots in quantities because it re- 
quires a good deal of hand labor, but roots make a 
juicy laxative and they are valuable as an appetizer 
and they carry mineral. Pulped roots are safe to feed 
and they offer the best mixing medium for crushed 
grains and other concentrated foods. 

FEED CRUSHER 

Instead of grinding grain for feeding, we have what 
is known as a crusher which operates on the roller-mill 
principle. It breaks the grains into flour by crushing 
instead of grinding. It has the advantage of doing 
good work quickly. Our feed grinding is done in the 
two-story corncrib and granary. It is one of the odd 
jobs on the farm that every man likes. The grain is 
fed automatically into the machine by means of the 
grain spouts which lead the different kinds of grain 
down from the overhead bins. The elevator buckets 
carry the crushed feed back to one of the bins or into 
the bagger. In either case it is not necessary to do any 
lifting for the sacks are carried away on a bag truck. 
We have no use for a scoop shovel except as a sort of 
big dustpan to use with the barn broom. 

STUMP PULLER 

Pulling stumps by machinery is a quick operation 
compared with the old time methods of grubbing, chop- 
ping, prying and burning that our forefathers had on 
their hands. Modern stump pulling machines are 
small affairs compared with the heavy, clumsy things 
that were used a few years ago. Some of the new 
stump pullers are guaranteed to clear an acre a day of 



132 FARM MECHANICS 

ordinary stumpage. This, of course, must be a rough 
estimate, because stumps, like other things, vary in 
numbers, size and condition of soundness. Some old 
stumps may be removed easily while others hang to 
the ground with wonderful tenacity. 

There are two profits to follow the removal of stumps 
from a partially cleared field. The work already put 
on the land has in every case cost considerable labor to 
get the trees and brush out of the way. The land is 
partially unproductive so long as stumps remain. For 
this reason, it is impossible to figure on the first cost 
until the stumps are removed to complete the work and 
to put the land in condition to raise machine made 
crops. When the stumps are removed, the value of the 
land either for selling or for farming purposes is in- 
creased at once. Whether sold or farmed, the increas- 
ing value is maintained by cropping the land and se- 
curing additional revenue. 

There are different ways of removing stumps, some 
of which are easy while others are difficult and expen- 
sive. One of the easiest ways is to bore a two-inch 
auger hole diagonally down into the stump ; then fill 
the auger hole with coal-oil and let it remain for some 
weeks to soak into the wood. Large stumps may be 
bored in different directions so the coal-oil will find its 
way not only through the main part of the stumps 
but down into the roots. This treatment requires that 
the stumps should be somewhat dry. A stump that is 
full of sap has no room for coal-oil, but after the sap 
partially dries out, then coal oil will fill the pores of the 
wood. After the stump is thoroughly saturated with 
coal-oil, it will burn down to the ground, so that the 
different large roots will be separated. Sometimes the 
roots will burn below plow depth, but a good heavy 



DRIVEN MACHINES 133 

pair of horses with a grappling hook will remove the 
separated roots. 

Dynamite often is used to blow stumps to pieces, and 
the work is not considered dangerous since the inven- 
tion of safety devices. In some sections of the country 
where firewood is valuable, dynamite has the advantage 




Initial Position Final Position 



Figure 130. — The Oldest Farm Hoist. The first invention for ele- 
vating a heavy object was a tripod made of three poles tied together 
at the top with thongs of bark or rawhide. When hunters were 
lucky enough to kill a bear, the tripod elevator was erected over the 
carcass with the lower ends of the poles spread well apart to lower 
the apex. The gambrel was inserted under the hamstrings and at- 
tached to the top of the tripod. As the skinning of the animal pro- 
ceeded the feet of the tripod were moved closer together. By the 
time the head was cut off the carcass would swing clear. 

of saving the wood. An expert with dynamite will 
blow a stump to pieces so thoroughly that the differ- 
ent parts are easily worked into stove lengths. Pitch- 
pine stumps have a chemical value that was not sus- 
pected until some fellows got rich by operating a retort. 

FARM ELEVATING MACHINERY 

Many handy and a few heavy elevators are being 
manufactured to replace human muscle. The simple 
tripod beef gin was familiar to the early settlers and 



134 FARM MECHANICS 

it is still in use. When a heavy animal was killed for 
butchering, the small ends of three poles were tied to- 
gether to form a tripod over the carcass. The feet of 
the tripod were placed wide apart to raise the apex 
only a few feet above the animal. After the gambrel 
was inserted and attached the feet of the tripod were 
moved gradually closer together as the skinning pro- 
ceeded, thus elevating the carcass to swing clear of the 
ground. 

Grain Elevators. — As a farm labor-saver, machinery 
to elevate corn into the two-story concrib and grain 
into the upper bins is one of the newer and more im- 
portant farming inventions. With a modern two-story 
corncrib having a driveway through the center, a con- 
crete floor and a pit, it is easy to dump a load of* grain 
or ear corn by raising the front end of the wagon box 
without using a shovel or corn fork. After the load is 
dumped into the pit a boy can drive a horse around in a 
circle while the buckets carry the corn or small grain 
and deliver it by spout into the different corncribs or 
grain bins. There are several makes of powerful grain 
elevating machines that will do the work easily and 
quickly. 

The first requisite is a building with storage over- 
head, and a convenient place to work the machinery. 
Some of the elevating machines are made portable and 
some are stationary. Some of the portable machines 
will work both ways. Usually stationary elevators are 
placed in vertical position. Some portable elevators 
may be operated either vertically or on an incline. 
Such machines are adaptable to different situations, so 
the corn may be carried up into the top story of a farm 
grain warehouse or the apparatus may be hauled to the 
railway station for chuting the grain or ear corn into 



DRIVEN MACHINES 



135 



a car. It depends upon the use to be made of the ma- 
chinery whether the strictly stationary or portable ele- 
vator is required. To unload usually some kind of pit 
or incline is needed with any kind of an elevator, so the 
load may be dumped automatically quickly from the 
wagon box to be distributed by carrying buckets at 
leisure. 




Figure 131. — Portable Grain Elevator Filling a Corncrib. The 
same rig is taken to the railway to load box cars. The wagon is un- 
loaded by a lifting jack. It costs from lc to iy 2 c per bushel to 
shovel corn by hand, but the greatest saving is in time. 



Some elevators are arranged to take grain slowly 
from under the tailboard of a wagon box. The tailrod 
is removed and the tailboard raised half an inch or an 
inch, according to the capacity of the machinery. The 
load pays out through the opening as the front of the 
wagon is gradually raised, so the last grain will dis- 
charge into the pit or elevator hopper of its own weight. 
Technical building .knowledge and skill is required to 
properly connect the building and elevating machinery 
so that the two will work smoothly together. There 
are certain features about the building that must con- 



136 FARM MECHANICS 

form to the requirements and peculiarities of the ele- 
vating machinery. The grain and ear corn are both 
carried up to a point from which they will travel by 
gravity to any part of the building. The building re- 
quires great structural strength in some places, but the 
material may be very light in others. Hence, the neces- 
sity of understanding both building and machinery in 
order to meet all of the necessary technical require- 
ments. 



CHAPTER V 

WORKING THE SOIL 
IMPORTANCE OF PLOWING 

Plowing is a mechanical operation that deals with 
physics, chemistry, bacteriology and entomology. The 
soil is the farmer's laboratory; his soil working imple- 
ments are his mechanical laboratory appliances. A 




Figure 132. — Heavy Disk Plow. A strong four-horse disk imple- 
ment for breaking stumpy ground or to tear tough sod into bits be- 
fore turning under with a moldboard. 

high order of intelligence is required to merge one op- 
eration into the next to take full advantage of the 
assistance offered by nature. The object of plowing 
and cultivation is to improve the mechanical condition 
of the soil, to retain moisture, to kill insects and to pro- 
vide a suitable home for the different kinds of soil bac- 
teria. 

There are aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, also nitro- 

137 



138 FARM MECHANICS 

gen-gathering bacteria and nitrifying bacteria which 
are often loosely referred to as azotabacter species. 
Few of us are on intimate terms with any of them, but 
some of us have had formal introductions through ex- 
periments and observation. 

THE MECHANICS OF PLOWING 

Walking Plow. — The draft of a walking plow may 
be increased or diminished by the manner of hitch. It 




Figure 133. — Sulky Plow. This is a popular type of riding plow. 
It is fitted with a rolling coulter. 

is necessary to find the direct line of draft between the 
work performed and the propelling force. The clevis 
in the two-horse doubletree, or the three-horse evener 
and the adjusting clevis in the end of the plow-beam 
with the connecting link will permit a limited adjust- 
ment. The exact direction that this line takes will 
prove out in operation. The walking plow should not 
have a tendency to run either in or out, neither too 
deep nor too shallow. For the proper adjustment as to 
width and depth of furrow, the plow should follow the 
line of draft in strict obedience to the pull so that it 



WORKING THE SOIL 



139 



will keep to the furrow on level ground a distance of 
several feet without guidance from the handles. In 
making the adjustment it is first necessary to see that 




Figure 134. — Disk Plow. Less power is required to plow with a 
disk, but it is a sort of cut and cover process. The disk digs 
trenches narrow at the bottom. There are ridges between the little 
trenches that are not worked. 




Figure 135. — Three-Horse and Four-Horse Eveners. This kind of 
evener hitches the horses closer to the load than some others and 
they are easier to handle than the spread out kinds. The four- 
horse rig requires the best horses in the middle. 

the plow itself is in good working order. All cutting 
edges such as share, coulter or jointer must be reason- 
ably sharp and the land slip in condition as the makers 
intended. 



140 FARM MECHANICS 

All plows should have a leather pocket on the side of 
the beam to carry a file. A 12-inch bastard file with a 
good handle is the most satisfactory implement for 
sharpening the cutting edges of a plow in the fields. A 
good deal depends on the character of the soil and its 
condition of dryness, but generally speaking, it pays to 
do a little filing after plowing a half mile of furrow. 
If the horses are doing their duty, a little rest at the 
end of the half mile is well earned. The plowman can 
put in the time to advantage with the file and the next 
half mile will go along merrily in consequence. No 
farmer would continue to chop wood all day without 
whetting his axe, but, unfortunately, plowmen often 
work from morning till night without any attempt to 
keep the cutting edges of their plows in good working 
order. 

Riding Plow. — The riding plow in lifting and turn- 
ing the furrow slice depends a good deal on the wheels. 
The action of the plow is that of a wedge witH the 
power pushing the* point, the share and the moldboard 
between the furrow slices and the land side and the 
furrow bottom. There is the same friction between the 
moldboard and the furrow slice as in the case of the 
walking plow, but the wheels are intended to mate- 
rially reduce the pressure on the furrow bottom and 
against the land side. Plow wheels are intended to re- 
lieve the draft in this respect because wheels roll much 
easier than the plow bottom can slide with the weight 
of the work on top. The track made in the bottom of 
the furrow with the walking plow shows plainly the 
heavy pressure of the furrow slice on the moldboard by 
the mark of the slip. To appreciate the weight the 
slip carries, an interesting experiment may be per- 
formed by loading the walking plow with weights suf- 



WORKING THE SOIL 



141 



ficient to make the same kind of a mark when the plow 
is not turning a furrow. 

One advantage in riding plows in addition to the 
relief of such a load is less packing of the furrow bot- 
tom. On certain soils when the moisture is just suffi- 
cient to make the subsoil sticky, a certain portion of the 
furrow bottom is cemented by plow pressure so that it 




Figure 136. — Three-Section, Spike-Tooth Harrow. The harrow is 
made straight, but the hitch is placed over to one side to give each 
tooth a separate line of travel. 




Figure 137. — Harrow Sled Long Enough to Hold a Four-Section 
Harrow. 

becomes impervious to the passage of moisture either 
up or down. The track of a plow wheel is less in- 
jurious. 

Plow wheels should stand at the proper angle to the 
pressure with especial reference to the work performed. 
Wheels should be adjusted with an eye single to the 
conditions existing in the furrow. Some wheel plows 
apparently are especially built to run light like a 
wagon above ground regardless of the underground 
work required of them. 



142 



FARM MECHANICS 



Axles should hang at right angles to the line of lift 
so accurately as to cause the wheels to wear but lightly 
on the ends of the hubs. Mistakes in adjustment show 
in the necessity of keeping a supply of washers on hand 
to replace the ones that quickly wear thin. 




Figure 138. — Corn Cultivator. A one-row, riding-disk cultivator. 
The ridges are smoothed by the spring scrapers to leave an even 
surface to prevent evaporation. 



In this respect a good deal depends on the sand-bands 
at the ends of the hubs. Plow wheels are constantly 
lifting gritty earth and dropping it on the hubs. There 
is only one successful way to keep sand out of the jour- 
nals and that is by having the hubs, or hub ferrules, 
extend well beyond the bearings. Plow wheel hub ex- 
tensions should reach two inches beyond the journal 
both at the large end of the hub and at the nut or linch- 



WORKING THE SOIL 143 

pin end. Some plow wheels cut so badly that farmers 
consider oil a damage and they are permitted to run 
dry. This is not only very wasteful of expensive iron 
but the wheels soon wabble to such an extent that they 
no longer guide the plow, in which case the draft may 
be increased enormously. 




Figure 139. — A Combination Riding and Walking Cultivator, 
showing fenders attached to protect young plants the first time 
through. The two bull tongues shown are for use in heavy soils 
or when deeper digging is necessary. 

Scotch Plows. — When the long, narrow Scotch sod 
plows are exhibited at American agricultural fairs they 
attract a good deal of attention and no small amount of 
ridicule from American farmers because of the six or 
seven inch furrows they are intended to turn. In this 
country we are in too much of a hurry to spend all day 
plowing three-fourths of an acre of ground. Intensive 
farming is not so much of an object with us as the 
quantity of land put under cultivation. 



144 FARM MECHANICS 

Those old-fashioned Scotch plows turn a furrow 
about two-thirds of the way over, laying the sod surface 
at an angle of about 45° to the bottom of the furrow. 
The sharp comb cut by the coulter and share stands up- 
right so that a sod field when plowed is marked in sharp 
ridges six or seven inches apart, according to the width 
of the furrow. Edges of sod show in the bottoms of 
the corrugations between these little furrow ridges. 

When the rains come the water is held in these 
grooves and it finds its way down the whole depth of 
the furrow slice carrying air with it and moistening ev- 
ery particle of trash clear to the bottom of the furrow. 
Such conditions are ideal for the work of the different 
forms of bacteria to break down plant fibre contained 
in the roots and trash and work it into humus, which 
is in turn manipulated by other forms of soil bacteria 
to produce soil water which is the only food of grow- 
ing plants. 

Jointer Plows. — American plow makers also have 
recognized the necessity of mixing humus with soil in 
the act of plowing. To facilitate the process and at the 
same time turn a wide furrow, the jointer does fairly 
good work when soil conditions are suitable. The 
jointer is a little plow which takes the place of the 
coulter and is attached to the plow-beam in the same 
manner. The jointer turns a little furrow one inch 
or two inches deep and the large plow following after 
turns a twelve-inch or fourteen-inch furrow slice flat 
over, throwing the little jointer furrow in the middle 
of the furrow bottom in such a way that the big furrow 
breaks over the smaller furrow. 

If the work is well done, cracks as wide as a man's 
hand and from three to five inches deep are left all over 
the field. These cracks lead air and moisture to rot the 



WORKING THE SOIL 145 

trash below. This is a much quicker way of doing a 
fairly good job of plowing. Such plows loosen the soil 
and furnish the conditions required by nature; and 
they may be operated with much less skill than the old- 
fashioned narrow-furrowed Scotch plows. 

Good plowing requires first that the soil be in proper 
condition to plow, neither too dry nor too wet, but no 
man can do good plowing without the proper kind of 
plow to fit the soil he is working with. 

PLOWING BY TRACTOR 

Under present conditions farm tractors are not in- 
tended to replace horse power entirely but to precede 
horses to smooth the rough places that horses may fol- 
low with the lighter machines to add the finishing 
touches. Light tractors are being made, and they are 
growing in popularity, but the real business of the 
farm tractor is to do the heavy lugging — the work that 
kills horses and delays seeding until the growing sea- 
son has passed. The actual power best suited to the 
individual farm can only be determined by the nature 
of the land and the kind of farming. 

In. the Middle West where diversified farming is 
practiced, the 8-16 and the 10-20 sizes seem to be the 
most satisfactory, and this is without regard to the size 
of the farm. The preponderance of heavy work will 
naturally dictate the buying of ,a tractor heavier than 
a 10-20. The amount of stationary work is a factor. 
In certain communities heavy farm tractors are made 
to earn dividends by running threshing machines after 
harvest, silo fillers in the fall and limestone crushers 
in the winter. 

Here is a classified list of jobs the medium size farm 
tractor is good for : 



146 FARM MECHANICS 

Clearing the Land — pulling up bushes by the roots, 
tearing out hedges, pulling stumps, grubbing, pulling 
stones. 

Preparing Seed Bed and Seeding — plowing, disking, 
crushing clods, pulling a land plane, rolling, packing, 
drilling, harrowing. 

Harvesting — mowing, pulling grain binders, pulling 
potato digger. 

Belt Work — hay baling, corn shelling, heavy pump- 
ing for irrigation, grinding feed, threshing, clover 
hulling, husking and shredding, silo filling, stone 
crushing. 

Eoad Work — grading, dragging, leveling, ditching, 
hauling crops. 

Miscellaneous — running portable sawmill, stretch- 
ing wire fencing, ditch digging, manure spreading. 

Generally speaking, however, the most important 
farm tractor work is preparing the seed-bed thoroughly 
and quickly while the soil and weather conditions are 
the best. And the tractor's ability to work all day and 
all night at such times is one of its best qualifications. 

To plow one square mile, or 640 acres, with a walk- 
ing plow turning a twelve-inch furrow, a man and 
team must walk 5,280 miles. The gang-plow has al- 
ways been considered a horse killer, and, when farmers 
discovered that they could use oil power to save their 
horses, many were quick to make the change. 

It requires approximately 10 horsepower hours to 
turn an acre of land with horses. At a speed of two 
miles, a team with one plow in ten hours will turn two 
acres. To deliver the two horsepower required to do 
this work, they must travel 176 feet per minute and 
exert a continuous pull of 375 pounds or 187.5 pounds 
per horse. 



WORKING THE SOIL 147 

One horsepower equals a pull of 33,000 pounds, 
moved one foot per minute. Two-mile speed equals 
two times 5,280 or 10,560 feet per hour, or 176 feet per 
minute. Sixty-six thousand divided by 176 equals 375 
foot pounds pull per minute. One horsepower is ab- 
sorbed in 88 feet of furrow. 

Horse labor costs, according to Government figures, 
121/2 cents per hour per horse. On this basis ten hours' 
work will be $1.25, which is the average daily cost of 
each horse. An average Illinois diversified farm of 160 
acres would be approximately as follows : Fifty acres 
of corn, 30 acres of oats and wheat, 20 acres of hay, 60 
acres of rough land, pasture, orchard, building and 
feed lots. 

This average farm supports six work horses or mules 
and one colt. According to figures taken from farm 
work reports submitted by many different corn belt 
farmers, the amount of horse-work necessary to do this 
cropping would figure out as follows: 

Fifty acres of corn land for plowing, disking, har- 
rowing, planting, cultivating and harvesting would 
amount to a total of 1,450 horsepower hours. Thirty 
acres of wheat would require a total of 330 horsepower 
hours. Twenty acres of hay would require 110 horse- 
power hours. In round figures, 1,900 horsepower hours 
at 121/2 cents would amount to $237.50. 

Elaborate figures have been worked out theoretically 
to show that this work can be done by an 8-16 farm 
tractor in 27% days at a cost for kerosene fuel and 
lubricating oil of $1.89 per day. Adding interest, re- 
pairs and depreciation, brings this figure up to about 
$4.00 per day, or a total of $111.00 for the job. No ac- 
count is kept of man power in caring for either the 
horses or the tractor. The actual man labor on the job, 



148 FARM MECHANICS 

however, figures 12^3 days less for the tractor than for 
horses. We should remember that actual farm figures 
are used for the cost of horse work. Such figures are 
not available for tractor work. 

The cost of plowing with a traction engine depends 
upon so many factors that it is difficult to make any 
definite statement. It depends upon the condition of 
the ground, size of the tractor, the number of plows 
pulled, and the amount of fuel used. An 8-16 horse- 
power tractor, for instance, burning from 15 to 20 gal- 
lons of low grade kerosene per ten hour day and using 
one gallon of lubricating oil, costs about $1.90 per ten 
hours work. Pulling two 14-inch plows and traveling 
20 miles per day, the tractor will plow 5.6 acres at a 
fuel and an oil cost of about 30 cents per acre. Pulling 
three 14-inch plows, it will turn 8.4 acres at a cost for 
fuel and oil of about 20 cents an acre. 

The kind and condition of soil is an important factor 
in determining the tractor cost of plowing. Compari- 
son between the average horse cost and the average 
tractor cost suggests very interesting possibilities in 
favor of tractor plowing under good management. 

Aside from the actual cost in dollars we should also 
remember that no horse gang can possibly do the qual- 
ity of work that can be accomplished by an engine 
gang. Anxiety to spare the team has cut a big slice off 
the profits of many a f armer. He has often plowed late 
on account of hard ground, and he has many times 
allowed a field to remain unplowed on account of worn- 
out teams. Under normal conditions, late plowing 
never produces as good results as early plowing. Many 
a farmer has fed and harnessed by the light of the lan- 
tern, gone to the field and worked his team hard to take 
advantage of the cool of the morning. With the ap- 



WORKING THE SOIL 149 

proach of the hot hours of midday, the vicious flies 
sapping the vitality from his faithful team, he has 
eased up on the work or quit the job. 

In using the tractor for plowing, there are none of 
these distressing conditions to be taken into considera- 
tion, nothing to think of but the quality of work done. 
It is possible to plow deep without thought of the added 
burden. Deep plowing may or may not be advisable. 
But where the soil will stand it, deep plowing at 
the proper time of year, and when done with judg- 
ment, holds moisture better and provides more plant 
food. 

The pull power required to plow different soils varies 
from about three pounds per square inch of furrow for 
light sand up to twenty pounds per square inch of 
furrow for gumbo. The draft of a plow is generally 
figured from clover sod, which averages about seven 
pounds per square inch. Suppose a plow rig has two 
14-inch bottoms, and the depth to be plowed is six 
inches. A cross section of each plow is therefore 14 by 
6 inches, or 84 square inches. Twice this for two bot- 
toms is 168 square inches. Since, in sandy soil, the 
pressure per square inch is three pounds, therefore 168 
times 3 pounds equals 504 pounds, the draft in sandy 
soil. 168 times 7 pounds equals 1,176 pounds, the draft 
in clover sod. 168 times 8 pounds equals 1,344 pounds, 
the draft in clay sod. 

The success of crop growing depends upon the way 
the seed-bed is prepared. The -final preparation of the 
seed-bed can never be thoroughly well done unless the 
ground is properly plowed to begin with. It is not suf- 
ficient to root the ground over or to crowd it to one side 
but the plow must really turn the furrow slice in a uni- 
form, systematic manner and lay it bottom side upper- 



150 FARM MECHANICS 

most to receive the beneficial action of the air, rain and 
sunshine. 

The moldboard of a plow must be smooth in order to 
properly shed the earth freely to make an easy turn- 
over. The shape of the shear and the forward part of 
the moldboard is primarily that of a wedge, but the roll 
or upper curve of the moldboard changes according to 
soil texture and the width and depth of furrow to be 
turned. Moldboards also differ in size and shape, ac- 
cording to the kind of furrow to be turned. Sometimes 
in certain soils a narrow solid furrow with a comb 
on the upper edge is preferable. In other soils a 
cracked or broken furrow slice works the best. When 
working our lighter soils a wide furrow turned flat over 
on top of a jointer furrow breaks the ground into frag- 
ments with wide cracks or openings reaching several 
inches down. Between these extremes there are many 
modifications made for the particular type or texture 
of the soil to be plowed. "We can observe the effect that a 
rough, or badly scratched, or poorly shaped moldboard 
has on any kind of soil, especially when passing from 
gravelly soils to clay. In soil that contains the right 
amount of moisture, when a plow scours all the time, 
the top of the furrow slice always has a glazed or shiny 
appearance. This shows that the soil is slipping off 
the moldboard easily. In places where the plow does 
not scour the ground is pushed to one side and packed 
or puddled on the underside instead of being lifted 
and turned as it should be. A field plowed with a de- 
fective moldboard will be full of these places. Such 
ground cannot have the life to bring about a satis- 
factory bacteria condition necessary to promote the 
rapid plant growth that proper plowing gives it. 

Cultivated sandy soils are becoming more acid year 



WORKING THE SOIL 151 

after year. We are using lime to correct the acidity, 
but the use of lime requires better plowing and better 
after cultivation to thoroughly mix the trash with the 
earth to make soil conditions favorable to the different 
kinds of soil bacteria. Unless we pay special attention 
to the humus content of the soil we are likely to use 
lime to dissolve out plant foods that are not needed by 
the present crop, and, therefore, cannot be utilized. 
This is what the old adage means which reads : ' ' Lime 
enricheth the father but impoverisheth the son. ' ' When 
that was written the world had no proper tillage tools 
and the importance of humus was not even dreamed of. 

Not so many years ago farm plows were made of cast 
iron. Then came the steel moldboard, which was sup- 
posed to be the acme of perfection in plow making. 
Steel would scour and turn the furrow in fluffy soils 
where cast iron would just root along without turning 
the ground at all. Later the art of molding steel was 
studied and perfected until many grades and degrees 
of hardness were produced and the shape of the mold- 
board passed through a thousand changes. The idea 
all the time was to make plows that would not only 
scour but polish in all kinds of soil. At the same time 
they must turn under all of the vegetable growth to 
make humus, to kill weeds and to destroy troublesome 
insects. Besides these requirements the soil must be 
pulverized and laid loose to admit both air and mois- 
ture. These experiments gradually led up to our pres- 
ent high grade plows of hardened steel and what is 
known as chilled steel. 

Besides the hardness there are different shapes de- 
signed for different soils so that a plow to work well on 
one farm may need to be quite different from a plow to 
do the best work in another neighborhood. The furrow 



152 FARM MECHANICS 

slice sliding over a perfect moldboard leaves the sur- 
face of the upturned ground as even as the bottom of 
the furrow. By using a modern plow carefully selected 
to fit the soil, gravel, sandy, stony or muck soils, or silt 
loams that contain silica, lime, iron and aluminum ox- 
ide can be worked with the right plow to do the best 
work possible if we use the necessary care and judg- 
ment in making the selection. 

One object of good plowing is to retain moisture 
in the soil until the growing crop can make good use 
of it. 

The ease with which soils absorb, retain or lose mois- 
ture, depends mostly on their texture, humus content, 
physical condition, and surface slope or artificial drain- 
age. It is to the extent that cultivation can modify 
these factors that more soil water can be made available 
to the growing crop. There are loose, open soils 
through which water percolates as through a sieve, and 
there are tight, gumbo soils which swell when the sur- 
face is moistened and become practically waterproof. 
Sandy soils take in water more readily than heavier 
soils, hence less precaution is necessary to prevent 
run-off. 

Among the thousands of plows of many different 
makes there are plenty of good ones. The first con- 
sideration in making a selection is a reliable home 
dealer who has a good business reputation and a thor- 
ough knowledge of local soil from a mechanical stand- 
point. The next consideration is the service the plow 
will give in proportion to the price. 

DISK HARROW 

For preparing land to receive the seed no other im- 
plement will equal a double disk. These implements 



WORKING THE SOIL 153 

are made in various sizes and weights of frame. For 
heavy land, where it is necessary to weight the disk 
down, an extra heavy frame is necessary. It would 
probably be advisable to get the extra strong frame for 
any kind of land, because even in light sand there are 
times when a disk may be used to advantage to kill 
quackgrass or to chew up sod before plowing. In such 
cases it is customary to load on a couple of sacks of 
sand in addition to the weight of the driver. "When a 
disk is carrying 300 or 400 pounds besides its own 
weight the racking strains which pull from different 
directions have a tendency to warp or twist a light 
frame out of shape. To keep a disk cultivator in good 
working order it is necessary to go over it thoroughly 
before doing heavy work. Bolts must be kept tight, all 
braces examined occasionally, and the heavy nuts at 
the ends of the disk shafts watched. They sometimes 
loosen and give trouble. The greatest difficulty in run- 
ning a disk harrow or cultivator is to keep the boxings 
in good trim. Wooden boxes are provided with the 
implement. It is a good plan to insist on having a full 
set of eight extra boxes. These wooden boxes may be 
made on the farm, but it sometimes is difficult to get 
the right kind of wood. They should be made of hard 
maple, bored according to size of shaft, and boiled in 
a good quality of linseed oil. Iron boxings have never 
been satisfactory on a disk implement. Wooden ones 
make enough trouble, but wood has proved better than 
iron. On most disk cultivators there are oil channels 
leading to the boxings. These channels are large 
enough to carry heavy oil. The lighter grades of cylin- 
der oil work the best. It is difficult to cork these oil 
channels tight enough to keep the sand out. Oil and 
sand do not work well together in a bearing. The 



154 FARM MECHANICS 

manufacturers of these implements could improve the 
oiling device by shortening the channel and building a 
better housing for the oil entrance. It is quite a job to 
take a disk apart to put in new boxings, but, like all 
other repair work, the disk should be taken into the 
shop, thoroughly cleaned, repaired, painted and oiled 
in the winter time. 

Some double disk cultivators have tongues and some 
are made without. Whether the farmer wants a tongue 
or not depends a good deal on the land. The only ad- 
vantage is that a tongue will hold the disk from crowd- 
ing onto the horses when it is running light along the 
farm lanes or the sides of the fields with the disks set 
straight. Horses have been ruined by having the 
sharp disks run against them when going down hill. 
Such accidents always are avoidable if a man realizes 
the danger. Unfortunately, farm implements are often 
used by men who do very little thinking. A spring 
disk scraper got twisted on a root and was thrown 
over the top of one of the disks so it scraped against the 
back of the disk and continued to make a harsh, scrap- 
ing noise until the proprietor went to see what was 
wrong. The man driving the disk said he thought 
something must be the matter with the cultivator, but 
he couldn 't tell for the life of him what it was. When 
farmers are up against such difficulties it is safer to 
buy a disk with a tongue. 

Harrow Cart. — A small two-wheel cart with a spring 
seat overshadowed with a big umbrella is sometimes 
called a ' ' dude sulky. ' ' Many sensitive farmers trudge 
along in the soft ground and dust behind their harrows 
afraid of such old fogy ridicule. The hardest and most 
tiresome and disagreeable job at seeding time is fol- 
lowing a harrow on foot. Riding a harrow cart in the 



WORKING THE SOIL 155 

field is conserving energy that may be applied to bet- 
ter purposes after the day's work in the field is fin- 
ished. 

KNIFE-EDGE PULVERIZERS 

A knife-edge weeder makes the best dust mulch pul- 
verizer for orchard work or when preparing a seed- 
bed for grain. These implements are sold under dif- 
ferent names. It requires a stretch of imagination to 
attach the word " harrow" to these knife-edge weed- 
ers. There is a central bar which is usually a hardwood 
plank. The knives are bolted to the underside of the 
plank and sloped backward and outward from the 
center to the right and left, so that the knife-edges 
stand at an angle of about 45° to the line of draught. 
This angle is just about sufficient to let tough weeds 
slip off the edges instead of dragging along. ■ If the 
knives are sharp, they will cut tender weeds, but the 
tough ones must be disposed of to prevent choking. 
The proper use of the knife-edge weeder prevents 
weeds from growing, but in farm practice, sometimes 
rainy weather prevents the use of such a tool until the 
weeds are well established. As a moisture retainer, 
these knife-edge weeders are superior to almost any 
other implement. They are made in widths of from 
eight to twenty feet. The wide ones are jointed in the 
middle to fit uneven ground, 

CLOD CRUSHER 

The farm land drag, float, or clod crusher is useful 
under certain conditions on low spots that do not drain 
properly. Such land must be plowed when the main 
portion of the field is in proper condition, and the re- 
sult often is that the low spots are so wet that the 



156 FARM MECHANICS 

ground packs into lumps that an ordinary harrow will 
not break to pieces. Such lumps roll out between the 
harrow teeth and remain on top of the ground to inter- 
fere with cultivation. The clod crusher then rides 
over the lumps and grinds them into powder. Unfor- 
tunately, clod crushers often are depended on to rem- 
edy faulty work on ordinary land that should receive 
better treatment. Many times the clod crusher is a 
poor remedy for poor tillage on naturally good land 
that lacks humus. 




Figure 140. — Land Float. Clod crushers and land floats belong 
to the same tribe. Theoretically they are all outlaws, but some 
practical farmers harbor one or more of them. Wet land, contain- 
ing considerable clay, sometimes forms into lumps which should be 
crushed. 

As ordinarily made, the land float or clod crusher 
consists of from five to eight planks, two inches thick 
and ten or twelve inches wide, spiked together in saw- 
tooth position, the edges of the planks being lapped 
over each other like clapboards in house siding. The 
planks are held in place with spikes driven through 
into the crosspieces. 

FARM ROLLER 

Farm rollers are used to firm the soil. Sometimes 
a seed-bed is worked up so thoroughly that the ground 
is made too loose so the soil is too open and porous. 
Seeds to germinate require that the soil grains shall fit 
up closely against them. Good soil is impregnated 
with soil moisture, or film moisture as it is often called, 
because the moisture forms in a film around each little 



WORKING THE SOIL 157 

soil grain. In properly prepared soil this film moisture 
comes in contact with the freshly sown seed. If the tem- 
perature is right the seed swells and germination 
starts. The swelling of the seed brings it in contact 



Figure 141. — Iron Land Roller Made of Boiler Plate. 




Figure 142. — Wooden Land Roller. 

with more film moisture attached to other grains of soil 
so the rootlet grows and pushes out into the soil in 
search of moisture on its own account. A roller is val- 
uable to press the particles of soil together to bring the 
freshly sown seeds in direct contact with as many par- 
ticles of soil as possible. Rolling land is a peculiar 
operation, the value of which is not always understood. 



158 FARM MECHANICS 

The original idea was to benefit the soil by breaking the 
lumps. It may be of some benefit on certain soils for 
this purpose, but the land should always be harrowed 
after rolling to form a dust mulch to prevent the evap- 
oration of moisture. Land that has been rolled and left 
overnight shows damp the next morning, which is suf- 
ficient proof that moisture is coming to the surface and 
is being dissipated into the atmosphere. In the so- 
called humid sections of the country the great problem 
is to retain moisture. Any farm implement that has a 
tendency to dissipate soil moisture is a damage to the 
farmer. Probably nine times out of ten a farm roller 
is a damage to the crop it is intended to benefit because 
of the manner in which it is used. It is the abuse, not 
the proper use of a roller, that injures the crop. 

CORN-PLANTER 

Corn-planters are designed to plant two rows at 
once. The width of rows may be adjusted from about 
32 to 44 inches apart. When seed-corn is carefully 
graded to size the dropping mechanism will feed out 
the grains of corn regularly with very few skips. This 
is one reason why most farmers plant corn in drills. 
There are other cultural reasons which do not prop- 
erly belong to this mechanical article. Hill dropping 
is considerably more complicated and difficult. After 
the feeding mechanism has been adjusted to the size 
of seed kernels to be planted so it will drop four ker- 
nels in a hill then the trip chain is tried out to see if 
it is right at every joint. Dropping in hills is a very 
careful mechanical proposition. An inch or two out 
of line either way means a loss of corn in cultivating. 

In setting the stakes to go and come by, a careful 
measurement of the field is necessary in order to get 



WORKING THE SOIL 159 

the stake lines on both sides of the field parallel. If 
the ring stakes are driven accurately on the line, then 
the first hill of corn must come at the same distance 
from the line in each row. Likewise in starting back 
from the far side of the field the first hill should meas- 
ure exactly the same distance from the stake line as the 
first hills on the opposite side of the field. This is 
easily managed by counting the number of trips be- 
tween the stake line and the first row of corn hills. If 
the two lines of stakes on the opposite sides of the field 
are exactly parallel it is not necessary to move either 
line in order to get the proper distance to start drop- 
ping, but it must be adjusted by measurement, other- 
wise the corn hills will be dodged. If the corn hills are 
to space three feet apart then the first row of hills 
should come nine or twelve feet from the stake line. 
Stakes may be measured and set a certain number of 
inches from the line to make the distance come right. 
This careful adjustment brings the hills in line in the 
rows. 

When the field is level or gently sloping +here is no 
difficulty in making straight rows so far as check row- 
ing is concerned. When the field is hilly another prob- 
lem crops up. It is almost impossible to run corn rows 
along the side of a hill and keep them straight. The 
planter has a tendency to slide downhill. Also the dis- 
tance across a field is greater where the rows pass over 
a hill. To keep the rows straight under such conditions 
allowance must be made for the stretch over the hill 
as well as for the side thrust of the planter. Where a 
chain marker is used it hangs downhill and a further 
allowance must be made for that. A good driver will 
skip an inch or so above the mark so that the rows will 
be planted fairly straight. This means a good deal more 



160 FARM MECHANICS 

in check rowing than when the corn is planted in drills. 
The greatest objection to hill planting is the crowding 
of four corn plants into a space that should be occupied 
by one plant. 

A great many experiments have been tried to scat- 
ter the seeds in the hill, so far without definite results, 
except when considerable additional expense is in- 
curred. However, a cone suspended below the end of 
the dropping tube usually will scatter the seeds so 
that no two seeds will touch each other. They may not 
drop and scatter four or five inches apart, but these 
little cones will help a good deal. They must be ac- 
curately adjusted so the point of the cone will center 
in the middle of the vertical delivery tube, and there 
must be plenty of room all around the cone so the 
corn seed kernels won't stick. The braces that hold 
the cones in place for the same reason must be turned 
edge up and supported in such a way as to leave 
plenty of clearance. The idea is that four kernels of 
corn drop together. They strike the cone and are scat- 
tered in different directions. They naturally fly to 
the outsides of the drill mark which scatters them as 
wide apart as the width of the shoe that opens the drill. 
The advantage of scattering seed grains in the hill has 
been shown by accurate experiments conducted at dif- 
ferent times by agricultural colleges. 

GRAIN DRILL 

To know exactly how much seed the grain drill is 
using it is necessary to know how many acres are con- 
tained in the field. Most drills have an attachment 
that is supposed to measure how many acres and frac- 
tions of acres the drill covers. Farmers know how 
much grain each sack contains, so they can estimate as 



WORKING THE SOIL 161 

they go along, provided the drill register is correct. It 
is better to provide a check on the drill indicator. Have 
the field measured, then drive stakes along one side, 
indicating one acre, five acres and ten acres. When 
the one-acre stake is reached the operator can estimate 
very closely whether the drill is using more or less 
seed than the indicator registers. When the five-acre 
stake is reached another proof is available, and so on 
across the field. Next in importance to the proper 
working of the drill is straight rows. The only way to 
avoid gaps is to drive straight. The only way to drive 
straight is to sight over the wheel that follows the last 
drill mark. Farmers sometimes like to ride on the 
grain drill, which places the wheel sighting proposition 
out of the question. A harrow cart may be hitched be- 
hind the wheel of the grain drill, but it gives a side 
draft. The only way to have straight rows and thor- 
ough work is to walk behind the end of the drill. This 
is the proper way to use a drill, anyway, because a tooth 
may clog up any minute. Unless the operator is walk- 
ing behind the drill he is not in position to see quickly 
whether every tooth is working properly or not. It is 
hard work to follow a drill all day long, but it pays at 
harvest time. It costs just as much to raise a crop of 
grain that only covers part of the ground, and it seems 
too bad to miss the highest possible percentage to save 
a little hard work at planting time. 

SPECIAL CROP MACHINERY 

Special crops require special implements. After 
they are provided, the equipment must be kept busy 
in order to make it pay. If a farmer produces five 
acres of potatoes he needs a potato cutter, a planter, a 
riding cultivator, a sprayer that works under high 



162 FARM MECHANICS 

pressure, a digger and a sorter. The same outfit will 
answer for forty acres, which would reduce the per 
acre cost considerably. No farmer can afford to grow 
five acres of potatoes without the necessary machinery, 
because hand labor is out of the question for work of 
that kind. 

On the right kind of soil, and within reach of the 
right market, potatoes are money-makers. But they 
must be grown every year because the price of pota- 
toes fluctuates more than any other farm crop. Under 
the right conditions potatoes grown for iive years 
with proper care and good management are sure to 
make money. One year out of five will break even, two 
years will make a little monej^ and the other two years] 
will make big money. At the end of five years, with 
good business management, the potato machinery will 
be all paid for, and there will be a substantial profit. 

WHEEL HOE 

In growing onions and other truck crops, where the 
rows are too close together for horse cultivation, the 
wheel hoe is valuable. In fact, it is almost indispen- 
sable when such crops are grown extensively. The best 
wheel hoes have a number of attachments. When the 
seed-bed has been carefully prepared, and the soil is 
fine and loose, the wheel hoe may be used as soon as 
the young plants show above ground. Men who are 
accustomed to operating a wheel hoe become expert. 
They can work almost as close to the growing plants 
with an implement of this kind as they can with an or- 
dinary hand hoe. The wheel hoe, or hand cultivator, 
works the ground on both sides of the row at once, 
and it does it quickly, so that very little hand weeding 
is necessary. 



CHAPTER VI 

HANDLING THE HAY CEOP 
REVOLVING HAYRAKE 

About the first contrivance for raking hay by horse 
power consisted of a stick eight or ten feet long with 
double-end teeth running through it, and pointing in 
two directions. These rakes were improved from time 




Figure 143. — Grass Hook, for working around borders where the 
lawn-mower is too clumsy. 

to time, until they reached perfection for this kind of 
tool. They have since been superseded by spring- 
tooth horse rakes, except for certain purposes. For 
pulling field peas, and some kinds of beans, the old 
style revolving horse rake is still in use. 

Improved revolving horse rakes have a center tim- 
ber of hardwood about 4x6 inches in diameter. The 
corners are rounded to facilitate sliding over the 
ground. A rake twelve feet long will have about eigh- 
teen double- end teeth. The teeth project about two 
and one-half feet each way from the center timber. 

163 



164 FARM MECHANICS 

Each tooth is rounded up, sled-runner fashion, at each 
end so it will point forward and slide along over and 
close to the ground without catching fast. There is 
an iron pull rod, or long hook, attached to each end of 
the center bar by means of a bolt that screws into the 
center of the end of the wooden center shaft, thus 
forming a gudgeon pin so the shaft can revolve. Two 
handles are fastened by band iron straps to rounded 




Figure 144. — Revolving Hayrake. The center piece is 4"x6"xl2' 
long. The teeth are double enders 1%" square and 4' 6" long, 
which allows 24" of rake tooth clear of the center timber. Every 
stick in the rake is carefully selected. It is drawn by one horse. 
If the center teeth stick into the ground either the horse must stop 
instantly, or the rake must flop over, or there will be a repair job. 
This invention has never been improved upon for pulling Canada 
peas. 

recesses or girdles cut around the center bar. These 
girdles are just far enough apart for a man to walk 
between and to operate the handles. Wooden, or iron 
lugs, reach down from the handles with pins project- 
ing from their sides to engage the rake teeth. Two 
pins project from the left lug and three from the right. 
Sometimes notches are made in the lugs instead of 
pins. Notches are better ; they may be rounded up to 
prevent catching when the rake revolves. As the rake 
slides along, the driver holds the rake teeth in the 
proper position by means of the handles. When suffi- 
cient load has been gathered he engages the upper 



HANDLING THE HAY CHOP 1G5 

notch in the right hand lug, releases the left and raises 
the other sufficient to point the teeth into the ground. 
The pull of the horse turns the rake over and the man 
grasps the teeth again with the handle lugs as before. 
Unless the driver is careful the teeth may stick in the 
ground and turn over before he is ready for it. It re- 
quires a little experience to use such a rake to advan- 



Figure 145. — Buck Rake. When hay is stacked in the field a four- 
horse buck rake is the quickest way to bring the hay to the stack. 
The buck rake shown is 16 feet wide and the 2x4 teeth are 11 feet 
long. Two horses are hitched to each end and two drivers stand on 
the ends of the buck rake to operate it. The load is pushed under 
the horse fork, the horses are swung outward and the buck rake is 
dragged backward. 

tage. No better or cheaper way has ever been invented 
for harvesting Canada peas. The only objections are 
that it shells some of the riper pods and it gathers up a 
certain amount of earth with the vines which makes 
dusty threshing. 

HAY-TEDDER 

The hay-tedder is an English invention, which 
has been adopted by farmers in rainy sections of 



166 FARM MECHANICS 

the United States. It is an energetic kicker that scat- 
ters the hay swaths and drops the hay loosely to 
dry between showers. Hay may be made qnickly 
by starting the tedder an hour behind the mowing 
machine. 

It is quite possible to cut timothy hay in the morn- 
ing and put it in the mow in the afternoon, by shaking 
it up thoroughly once or twice with the hay-tedder. 
"When clover is mixed with the timothy, it is necessary 
to leave it in the field until the next day, but the time 
between cutting and mowing is shortened materially 
by the use of the tedder. 

Grass cut for hay may be kicked apart in the field 
early during the wilting process without shattering the 
leaves. If left too long, then the hay-tedder is a dam- 
age because it kicks the leaves loose from the stems and 
the most valuable feeding material is wasted. But 
it is a good implement if rightly used. In catchy 
weather it often means the difference between bright, 
valuable hay and black, musty stuff, that is hardly fit 
to feed. 

Hay-tedders are expensive. "Where two farmers 
neighbor together the expense may be shared, because 
the tedder does its work in two or three hours' time. 
Careful farmers do not cut down much grass at one 
time. The tedder scatters two mowing swaths at once. 
In fact the mowing machine, hay-tedder and horserake 
should all fit together for team work so they will fol- 
low each other without skips or unnecessary laps. The 
dividing board of the mowing-machine marks a path 
for one of the horses to follow and it is difficult to keep 
him out of it. But two horses pulling a hay-tedder will 
straddle the open strip between the swaths when the 
tedder is twice the width of the cut. 



HANDLING THE HAY CROP 



167 



HAY SKIDS 

Hay slips, or- hay skids, are used on the old smooth 
fields in the eastern states. They are usually made of 
seven-eighths-inch boards dressed preferably on one 
side only. They are used smooth side to the ground to 




Figure 146. — Hay Skid. This hay skid is 8 feet wide and 16 feet 
long. It is made of %" lumber put together with 2" carriage bolts — 
plenty of them. The round boltheads are countersunk into the 
bottom of the skid and the nuts are drawn down tight on the cleats. 
It makes a low-down, easy-pitching, hay-hauling device. 




Figure 147. — Hay Sling. It takes no longer to hoist 500 pounds 
of hay than 100 pounds if the rig is large and strong enough. Four 
feet wide by ten feet in length is about right for handling hay 
quickly. But the toggle must reach to the ends of the rack if used 
on a wagon. 



slip along easily. Rough side is up to better hold the 
hay from slipping. The long runner boards are held 
together by cross pieces made of inch boards twelve 
inches wide and well nailed at each intersection with 
nails well clinched. Small carriage bolts are better 
than nails but the heads should be countersunk into the 
bottom with the points up. They should be used with- 



168 



FARM MECHANICS 



out washers and the ends of the bolts cut close to the 
sunken nuts. The front end of the skid is rounded up 
slightly, sled runner fashion, as much as the boards 
will bear, to avoid digging into the sod to destroy either 
the grass roots or crowns of the plants. Hay usually is 




Figure 148. — (1) Four-Tined Derrick Fork. (2) Pea Guard. An 
extension guard to lift pea-vines high enough for the sickle is the 
cleanest way to harvest Canada peas. The old-fashioned way of 
pulling peas with a dull scythe has gone into oblivion. But the 
heavy bearing varieties still persist in crawling on the ground. If 
the vines are lifted and cut clean thev can be raked into windrows 
with a spring tooth hayrake. (3) Haystack Knife. This style of 
hay-cutting knife is used almost universally on stacks and in hay- 
mows. There is less use for hay-knives since farmers adopted power 
hayforks to lift hay out of a mow as well as to put it in. 



forked by hand from the windrows on to the skids. 
Sometimes hay slings are placed on the skids and the 
hay is forked on to the slings carefully in layers lapped 
over each other in such a way as to hoist on to the stack 
without spilling out at the sides. Four hundred to 
eight hundred pounds makes a good load for one of 



HANDLING THE HAY CROP 



169 



these skids, according to horse power and unevenness 
of the ground. They save labor, as compared to wag- 
ons, because there is no pitching up. All hoisting is 




Figure 149. — Double Harpoon Hayfork. This is a large size fork 
with extra long legs. For handling long hay that hangs together 
well this fork is a great success. It may be handled as quickly as 
a smaller fork and it carries a heavy load. 

supposed to be done by horse power with the aid of a 
hay derrick. 

WESTERN HAY DERRICKS 

Two derricks for stacking hay, that are used exten- 
sively in the alfalfa districts of Idaho, are shown in 
the illustration, Figure 151. The derrick to the left is 



170 FARM MECHANICS 

made with a square base of timbers which supports an 
upright mast and a horizontal boom. The timber base 
is sixteen feet square, made of five sticks of timber, 
each piece being 8x8 inches square by 16 feet in length. 
Two of the timbers rest flat on the ground and are 
rounded up at the ends to facilitate moving the derrick 
across the stubble ground or along the road to the next 




Figure 150. — Six-Tined Grapple Hayfork. It is balanced to hang 
as shown in the drawing when empty. It sinks into the hay easily 
and dumps quickly when the clutch is released. 

hayfield. These sleigh runner timbers are notched on 
the upper side near each end and at the middle to re- 
ceive the three cross timbers. The cross timbers also 
are notched or recessed about a half inch deep to make 
a sort of double mortise. The timbers are bound to- 
gether at the intersections by iron U-clamps that pass 
around both timbers and fasten through a flat iron 
plate on top of the upper timbers. These flat plates or 
bars have holes near the ends and the threaded ends of 
the U-irons pass through these holes and the nuts are 



HANDLING THE HAY CROP 



171 



screwed down tight. The sleigh runner timbers are re- 
cessed diagonally across the bottom to fit the round 
U-irons which are let into the bottoms o.f the timbers 
just enough to prevent scraping the earth when the 




Figure 151. — Idaho Hay Derricks. Two styles of hay derricks are 
used to stack alfalfa hay in Idaho. The drawing to the left shows 
the one most in use because it is easier made and easier to move. 
The derrick to the right usually is made larger and more powerful. 
Wire cable is generally used with both derricks because rope wears 
out quickly. They are similar in operation but different in construc- 
tion. The base of each is 16 feet square and the high ends of the 
booms reach up nearly 40 feet. A single hayfork -'ope, oi wire cable, 
is used ; it is about 65 feet long. The reach is sufficient to drop the 
hay in the center of a stack 24 feet wide. 



derrick is being moved. These iron U-clamp fasteners 
are much stronger and better than bolts through the 
timbers. 

There are timber braces fitted across the corners 
which are bolted through the outside timbers to brace 



172 



FARM MECHANICS 



the frame against a diamond tendency when moving 
the derrick. There is considerable strain when passing 
over uneven ground. It is better to make the frame so 




Figure 152. — Hay Carrier Carriage. Powerful carriers are part 
of the new barn. The track is double and the wheels run on both 
tracks to stand a side pull and to start quickly and run steadily 
when the clutch is released. 



solid that it cannot get out of square. The mast is a 
stick of timber 8 inches square and 20 or 24 feet long. 
This mast is securely fastened solid to the center of 



HANDLING THE HAY CROP 173 

the frame by having the bottom end mortised into the 
center cross timber at the middle and it is braced solid 
and held perpendicular to the framework by 4"x4" 
wooden braces at the corners. These braces are notched 
at the top ends to fit the corners of the mast and 
are beveled at the bottom ends to fit flat on top of 
the timbers. They are held in place by bolts and by 
strap iron or band iron bands. These bands are drilled 
with holes and are spiked through into the timbers 




Figure 153. — (1) Hayfork Hitch. A whiffletree pulley doubles the 
speed of the fork. The knot in the rope gives double power to start 
the load. (2) Rafter Grapple, for attaching an extra pulley to any 
part of the barn roof. 

with four-inch or five-inch wire nails. Holes are drilled 
through the band iron the right size and at the proper 
places for the nails. The mast is made round at the 
top and is fitted with a heavy welded iron ring or band 
to prevent splitting. The boom is usually about 30 
feet long. Farmers prefer a round pole when they can 
get it. It is attached to the top of the mast by an iron 
stirrup made by a blacksmith. This stirrup is made 
to fit loosely half way around the boom one-third of the 
way up from the big end, which makes the small end 
of the boom project 20 feet out from the upper end 
of the mast. The iron stirrup is made heavy and 



174 FARM MECHANICS 

strong. It has a round iron gudgeon iy 2 " in diameter 
that reaches down into the top of the mast about 18 
inches. The shoulder of the stirrup is supported by a 
square, flat iron plate which rests on and covers the 
top of the mast and has the corners turned down. It is 
made large to shed water and protect the top of the 
mast. This plate has a hole one and a half inches in 
diameter in the center through which the stirrup 





Figure 154. — 'Hay Rope Pulleys. The housing of the pulley to the 
left prevents the rope from running off the sheaves. 

gudgeon passes as it enters the top of the mast. A farm 
chain, or logging chain, is fastened to the large end of 
the boom by passing the chain around the boom and 
engaging the round hook. The grab hook end of the 
chain is passed around the timber below and is hooked 
back to give it the right length, which doubles the part 
of the chain within reach of the man in charge. This 
double end of the chain is lengthened or shortened to 
elevate the outer end of the boom to fit the stack. The 
small outer end of the boom is thus raised as the stack 
goes up. 



HANDLING THE HAY CROP 175 

An ordinary horse fork and tackle is used to hoist the 
hay. Three single pulleys are attached, one to the 
outer end of the boom, one near the top of the mast, 
and the other at the bottom of the mast so that the rope 
passes easily and freely through the three pulleys and 
at the same time permits the boom to swing around as 
the fork goes up from the wagon rack over the stack. 
This swinging movement is regulated by tilting the 
derrick towards the stack so that the boom swings over 




Figure 155. — Gambrel Whiffletree, for use in hoisting hay to pre- 
vent entanglements. It is also handy when cultivating around 
fruit-trees. 

the stack by its own weight or by the weight of the hay 
on the horse fork. Usually a wire truss is rigged over 
the boom to stiffen it. The wire is attached to the boom 
at both ends and the middle of the wire is sprung up to 
rest on a bridge placed over the stirrup. 

Farmers like this simple form of hay derrick because 
it is cheaply made and it may be easily moved because 
it is not heavy. It is automatic and it is about as cheap 
as any good derrick and it is the most satisfactory for 
ordinary use. The base is large enough to make it solid 
and steady when in use. Before moving the point of 
the boom is lowered to a level position so that the der- 



176 FAKM MECHANICS 

rick is not top-heavy. There is little danger of upset- 
ting upon ordinary farm lands. Also the width of 16 
feet will pass along country roads without meeting 
serious obstacles. Hay slings usually are made too 
narrow and too short. The ordinary little hay sling is 
prone to tip sideways and spill the hay. It is respon- 
sible for a great deal of profanity. The hay derrick 
shown to the right is somewhat different in construc- 
tion, but is quite similar in action. The base is the 




Figure 156. — Cable Hay Stacker. The wire cable is supported by 
the two bipods and is secured at each end by snubbing stakes. Two 
single-cable collars are clamped to the cable to prevent the bipods 
from slipping in at the top. Two double-cable clamps hold the 
ends of the cables to form stake loops. 

same but the mast turns on a gudgeon stepped into an 
iron socket mortised into the center timber. 

The wire hoisting cable is threaded differently, as 
shown in the drawing. This style of derrick is made 
larger, sometimes the peak reaches up 40' above the 
base. The extra large ones are awkward to move but 
they build fine big stacks. 

CALIFORNIA HAY EICKER 

In the West hay is often put up in long ricks in- 
stead of stacks. One of my jobs in California was "to 
put up 2,700 acres of wild hay in the Sacramento Val- 



HANDLING THE HAY CROP 



177 



ley. I made four rickers and eight buck rakes similar 
to the ones shown in the illustrations. Each ricker was 
operated by a crew of eight men. Four men drove two 
buck rakes. There were two on the rick, one at the 




• Figure 157. — California Hay Ricker, for putting either wild hay 
or alfalfa quickly in ricks. It is used in connection with home- 
made buck rakes. This ricker works against the end of the rick 
and is backed away each time to start a new bench. The upright 
is made of light poles or 2x4s braced as shown. It should be 28 or 
30 feet high. Iron stakes hold the bottom, while guy wires steady 
the top. 

fork and one to drive the hoisting rig. Ten mowing 
machines did most of the cutting but I hired eight more 
machines towards the last, as the latest grass was get- 
ting too ripe. The crop measured more than 2,100 
tons and it was all put in ricks, stacks and barns with- 
out a drop of rain on it. I should add that rain sel- 



178 FARM MECHANICS 

doin falls in the lower Sacramento Valley during the 
haying season in the months of May and June. This 
refers to wild hay, which is made up of burr clover, 
wild oats and volunteer wheat and barley. 

Alfalfa is cut from five to seven times in the hot in- 
terior valleys, so that if a farmer is rash enough to 
plant alfalfa under irrigation his haying thereafter 
will reach from one rainy season to the next, 



CHAPTER VII 

FARM CONVEYANCES 

STONE-BOAT 

One of the most useful and one of the least orna- 
mental conveyances on a farm is the stone-boat. It is 
a low-down handy rig for moving heavy commodities 
in summer as well as in winter. No other sleigh or 
wagon will equal a stone-boat for carrying plows or 




Figure 158. — Stone-Boat. Stump logs are selected for the planks. 
The bend of the planks is the natural curve of the large roots. The 
sawing is done by band saw cutting from two directions. 

harrows from one field to another. It is handy to tote 
bags of seed to supply the grain drill, to haul a barrel 
of water, feed for the hogs, and a great many other 
chores. 

When the country was new, sawmills made a business 
of sawing stone-boat plank. Trees for stone-boat staves 
were cut close to the ground and the natural crooks of 
the roots were used for the noses of sleigh runners and 
for stone-boats. But cast-iron noses are now manufac- 
tured with recesses to receive the ends of straight ordi- 
nary hardwood planks. These cast-iron ends are 

179 



180 



FARM MECHANICS 



rounded up in front to make the necessary nose crook. 
The front plank cross piece is bolted well towards the 
front ends of the runner planks. Usually there are two 
other hardwood plank cross pieces, one near the rear 
end and the other about one-third of the way back from 
the front. Placing the cross pieces in this way gives 
room between to stand a barrel. 

The cross pieces are bolted through from the bottom 
up. Round-headed bolts are used and they are counter- 




Figure 159. — Wheelbarrow. This factory-made wheelbarrow is the 
only pattern worth bothering with. It is cheap and answers the 
purpose better than the heavier ones with removable side wings. 

sunk to come flush with the bottom of the sliding 
planks. The nuts are countersunk into the cross 
pieces by boring holes about one-quarter inch deep. 
The holes are a little larger than the cornerwise 
diameter of the nuts. No washers are used, and 
the nuts are screwed down tight into the plank. 
The ends of the bolts are cut off even and filed 
smooth. The nuts are placed sharp corner side down 
and are left nearly flush on top or even with the sur- 
face of the cross pieces. In using a stone-boat, nobody 
wants a projection to catch any part of the load. 

Regular double-tree clevises are attached to the 
corners of the old-fashioned stone-boat and the side 



FARM CONVEYANCES 181 

chains are brought together to a ring and are just about 
long enough to form an equilateral triangle with the 
front end of the stone-boat. Cast-iron fronts usually 
have a projection in the center for the clevis hitch. 



OXEN ON A NEW ENGLAND FARM 

One of the most interesting experiences on a New 
England farm is to get acquainted with the manner in 
which oxen are pressed into farm service. One reason 
why oxen have never gone out of fashion in New Eng- 
land is the fact that they are patient enough to plow 
stony ground without smashing the plow. 

A great deal of New England farm land has been re- 
claimed by removing a portion of the surface stone. 
In the processes of freezing and thawing and cultiva- 
tion, stones from underneath keep working up to the 
surface so that it requires considerable skill to do the 
necessary plowing and cultivating. Oxen ease the 
plowpoint over or around a rock so it can immediately 
dip in again to the full depth of the furrow. A good 
yoke of cattle well trained are gentle as well as strong 
and powerful. 

Oxen are cheaper than horses to begin with and 
they are valuable for beef when they are not needed 
any longer as work animals. The Holstein breed seems 
to have the preference for oxen with New England 
farmers. The necessary harness for a pair of cattle 
consists of an ox yoke with a ringbolt through the cen- 
ter of the yoke, midway between the two oxen. A 
heavy iron ring about five inches in diameter, made of 
round iron, hangs from the ring bolt. There are two 
oxbows to hold the yoke in place on the necks of the 
cattle. A logging chain with a round hook on one end 



182 FARM MECHANICS 

and a grab hook on the other end completes the yoking 
outfit. 

The round hook of the chain is hitched into the ring 
in the plow clevis. The chain is passed through the 
large iron ring in the oxbow and is doubled back to get 
the right length. The grab hook is so constructed that 
it fits over one link of the chain flatwise so that the next 
link standing crosswise prevents it from slipping. 

The mechanism of a logging chain is extremely sim- 
ple, positive in action and especially well adapted to 
the use for which it is intended. The best mechanical 
inventions often pass without notice because of their 
simplicity. Farmers have used logging chains for gen- 
erations with hooks made on this plan without realiz- 
ing that they were profiting by a high grade invention 
that embodies superior merit. 

In yoking oxen to a wagon the hitch is equally sim- 
ple. The end of the wagon tongue is placed in the ring 
in the ox yoke, the round hook engages with a draw- 
bolt under the hammer strap bar. The small grab hook 
is passed through the large yoke ring and is brought 
back and engaged with a chain link at the proper dis- 
tance to stretch the chain taut. 

The process of yoking oxen and hitching them to a 
wagon is one of the most interesting performances on 
a farm. The off ox works on the off side, or far side 
from the driver. He usually is the larger of the two 
and the more intelligent. The near (pronounced 
n-i-g-h) ox is nearest to the driver who walks to the left. 
Old plows turned the furrow to the right so the driver 
could walk on hard ground. In this way the awkward- 
ness and ignorance of the near ox is played against the 
docility and superior intelligence of the off ox. In 
yoking the two together the yoke is first placed on the 



FARM CONVEYANCES 183 

neck of the off ox and the near ox is invited to come 
under. This expression is so apt that a great many- 
years ago it became a classic in the hands of able writ- 
ers to suggest submission or slavery termed " coming 
under the yoke." Coming under the yoke, however, 
for the New England ox, in these days of abundant 
feeding, is no hardship. The oxen are large and power- 
ful and the work they have to do is just about sufficient 
to give them the needed exercise to enjoy their alfalfa 
hay and feed of oats or corn. 

TRAVOY 

One of the first implements used by farm settlers in 
the timbered sections of the United States and Canada, 
was a three-cornered sled made from the fork of a tree. 
This rough sled, in the French speaking settlements, 
was called a "travoy." Whether it was of Indian or 
French invention is not known ; probably both Indians 
and French settlers used travoys for moving logs in the 
woods before American history was much written. The 
legs or runners of a travoy are about five feet long. 
There is a bunk which extends crossways from one run- 
ner to the other, about half or two-thirds of the way 
back from the turned-up nose. This bunk is fastened 
to the runners by means of wooden pins and U- 
shaped bows fitted into grooves cut around the upper 
half of the bunk near the ends. Just back of the 
turned up nose is another cross piece in the shape of a 
stout wooden pin or iron bolt that is passed through an 
auger hole extending through both legs from side to 
side of the travoy. The underside of the crotch is 
hollowed out in front of the bolt to make room to pass 
the logging chain through so it comes out in front un- 
der the turned up nose. 



184 



FARM MECHANICS 



The front of the travoy is turned up, sled runner 
fashion, by hewing the wood with an axe to give it the 
proper shape. Travoys are used to haul logs from a 
thick woods to the skidways. The manner of using a 
travoy is interesting. It is hauled by a yoke of cattle 
or a, team of horses to the place where the log lies in the 
woods. The round hook end of the logging chain is 
thrown over the butt end of the log and pulled back 
under the log then around the bunk just inside of the 




Figure 160. — Travoy. 



A log-hauling sled made from the fork of a 
tree. 



runner and hooked fast upon itself. The travoy is then 
leaned over against the log, the grab hook end of the 
chain is brought over the log and over the travoy and 
straightened out at right angles to the log. The cattle 
are hitched to the end of the logging chain and started. 
This kind of a hitch rolls the log over on top of the 
bunk on the travoy. The cattle are then unhitched. 
The grab hook end of the chain thus released is passed 
down and around under the other end of the bunk from 
behind. The chain is then passed over the bolt near 
the nose of the travoy and pulled down through the 
opening and out in front from under the nose. The 



FARM CONVEYANCES 



185 



small grab hook of the logging chain is then passed 
through the clevis, in the doubletree, if horses are 
used, or the ring in the yoke if cattle are used, and 
hitched back to the proper length. A little experience 
is necessary to regulate the length of the chain to give 
the proper pull. The chain should be short enough so 
the pull lifts a little. It is generally conceded by 
woodsmen that a short hitch moves a log easier than a 
long hitch. However, there is a medium. There are 
limitations which experience only can determine. A 
travoy is useful in dense woods where there is a good 
deal of undergrowth or where there are places so 
rough that bobsleighs cannot be used to advantage. 

LINCHPIN FARM WAGONS 

In some parts of the country the wheels of handy 
wagons about the farm are held on axle journals by 




Figure 161. — Cross Reach Wagon. This wagon is coupled for a 
trailer, but it works just as well when used with a tongue and 
horses as a handy farm wagon. The bunks are made rigid and 
parallel by means of a double reach. There are two king bolts to 
permit both axles to turn. Either end is front. 



means of linchpins in the old-fashioned manner. There 
are iron hub-bands on both ends of the hubs which pro- 
ject several inches beyond the wood. This is the best 
protection against sand to prevent it from working into 
the wheel boxing that has ever been invented. Sand 



186 



FARM MECHANICS 



from the felloes scatters down onto these iron bands 
and rolls off to the ground. There is a hole through 
each band on the outer ends of the hubs to pass the 
linchpin through so that before taking off a wheel to 
oil the journal it must first be turned so the hole comes 
directly over the linchpin. To pry out the linchpin the 
drawbolt is used. Old-fashioned drawbolts were made 




Figure 162. — Wagon Brake. The hounds are tilted up to show the 
brake beam and the manner of attaching it. The brake lever is 
fastened to the forward side of the rear bolster and turns up along- 
side of the bolster stake. The brake rod reaches from the upper end 
of the lever elbow to the foot ratchet at the front end of the wagon 
box. 




Figure 163. — Bolster Spring. 

with a chisel shaped end tapered from both sides to a 
thickness of about an eighth of an inch. This thin 
wedge end of the drawbolt is placed under the end of 
the linchpin. The lower side of the hub-band forms a 
fulcrum to pry the pin up through the hole in the up- 
per side of the sand-band projection. The linchpin has 
a hook on the outer side of the upper end so the lever 
is transferred to the top of the sand-band when another 
pry lifts the pin clear out of the hole in the end of the 
axle so the wheel may be removed and grease applied 



FARM CONVEYANCES 187 

to the axle. The drawbolt on a linchpin wagon usu- 
ally has a head made in the form of the jaws of a 
wrench. The wrench is the right size to fit the nuts on 





Figure 164. — Wagon Seat Figure 165. — Hollow Malle* 

Spring. The metal block fits able Iron Bolster Stake to hold 

over the top of the bolster a higher wooden stake when 

stake. necessary. 

the wagon brace irons so that the drawbolt answers 
three purposes. 

SAND-BANDS 

Many parts of farm machinery require projecting 
sand-bands to protect the journals from sand and dust. 
Most farms have some sandy fields or ridges. Some 
farms are all sand or sandy loam. Even dust from clay 
is injurious to machinery. There is more or less grit 
in the finest clay. The most important parts of farm 
machinery are supposed to be protected by oil-cups 
containing cotton waste to strain the oil, together with 
covers in the shape of metal caps. These are necessary 
protections and they help, but they are not adequate 
for all conditions. It is not easy to keep sand out of 
bearings on machinery that shakes a good deal. 
"Wooden plugs gather sand and dust. When a plug is 
pulled the sand drops into the oil hole. Farm ma- 
chinery that is properly designed protects itself from 
sand and dust. In buying a machine this' particular 
feature should appeal to the farmers more than it 



188 



FARM MECHANICS 



does. Leather caps are a nuisance. They are a sort 
of patchwork to finish the job that the manufacturer 
commences. A man who is provident enough to sup- 
ply himself with good working tools and is sufficiently 




Figure 166. — Sand Caps. Not one manufacturer in a hundred 
knows how to keep sand out of an axle bearing. Still it is one of the 
simplest tricks in mechanics. The only protection an axle needs is 
long ferrules that reach out three or four inches beyond the hub at 
both ends. Old-fashioned Linchpin farm wagons were built on this 
principle. The hubs held narrow rings instead of skeins, but they 
wore for years. 

careful to take care of them, usually is particular about 
the appearance as well as the usefulness of his tools, 
machinery and implements. 



BOBSLEIGHS 

On Northern farms bobsleighs are as important in 
the winter time as a farm wagon in summer. There are 
different ways of putting bobsleighs together accord- 
ing to the use required of them. When using heavy 
bobsleighs for road work, farmers favor the bolster 
reach to connect the front and rear sleighs. With this 
attachment the horses may be turned around against 
the rear sled. The front bolster fits into a recessed 



FARM CONVEYANCES 189 

plate bolted to the bench plank of the front sleigh. 
This plate is a combination of wearing plate and circle 
and must be kept oiled to turn easily under a heavy 
load. It not only facilitates turning, but it prevents 
the bolster from catching on the raves or on the up- 
turned nose of the front bob when turning short. 

The heavy hardwood plank reach that connects the 
two bolsters is put through a mortise through the front 
bolster and is fastened rigidly by an extra large king- 
bolt. The reach plays back and forth rather loosely 
through a similar mortise in the other bolster on the 
rear sleigh. The rear hounds connect with the reach 
by means of a link and pin. This link pushes up 
through mortise holes in the reach and is fastened with 
a wooden pin or key on top of the reach. Sometimes 
the hounds are taken away and the reach is fastened 
with pins before and behind the rear bolster. This 
reach hitch is not recommended except for light road 
work. These two ways of attaching the rear sled neces- 
sitate different ways of fastening the rear bolster to 
the sled. When the rear bolster is required to do the 
pulling, it is attached to the sled by double eyebolts 
which permit the necessary rocking motion and allows 
the nose of the rear sled to bob up and down freely. 
This is an advantage when a long box bed is used, be- 
cause the bolster is made to fit the box closely and is not 
continually oscillating and wearing. Eye-bolts pro- 
vide for this natural movement of the sled. Light 
pleasure bobs are attached to the box with eyebolts 
without bolster stakes. The light passenger riding seat 
box is bound together with iron braces and side irons 
so it does not need bolsters to hold the sides together. 

Bobsleighs for use in the woods are hitched together 
quite differently. The old-fashioned reach with a staple 



190 



FARM MECHANICS 



in the rear bench of the first sled and a 'clevis in the end 
of the reach is the old-fashioned rig for rough roads in 
the woods. Such sleighs are fitted with bunks instead 
of bolsters. Bunks are usually cut from good hard- 
wood trees, hewed out with an axe and bored for round 




Figure 167. — Bobsleighs, Showing Three Kinds of Coupling. The 
upper sleighs are coupled on the old-fashioned short reach plan ex- 
cept that the reach is not mprtised into the roller. It is gained in 
a quarter of an inch and fastened by an iron strap with a plate and 
nuts on the under side. The bobs in the center show the bolster 
reach, principally used for road work. The bottom pair are coupled 
by cross chains for short turning around trees and stumps in the 
woods. 



stakes. Log bunks for easy loading do not project 
beyond the raves. With this kind of a rig, a farmer can 
fasten two logging chains to the reach, carry the grab 
hook ends out and under and around the log and back 
again over the sleighs, and then hitch the horses to the 
two chains and roll the log up over a couple of skids 
and on to the bunks without doing any damage to the 



FARM CONVEYANCES 191 

bobsleighs. Bobsleighs hitched together with an old- 
fashioned reach and provided with wide heavy raves 
will climb over logs, pitch down into root holes, and 
weave their way in and out among trees better than any 
other sled contrivance, and they turn short enough for 
such roads. The shortest turning rig, however, is the 
cross chain reach shown in Figure 167. 

MAKING A FARM CART 

A two-wheeled cart large enough to carry a barrel of 
cider is a great convenience on a farm. The front 
wheels of a buggy are about the right size and usually 
are strong enough for cart purposes. A one-inch iron 
axle will be stiff enough if it is reinforced at the square 
bends. The axle is bent down near the hubs at right 
angles and carried across to support the floor of the 
cart box about one foot from the ground. The distance 
from the ground should be just sufficient so that when 
the cart is tipped back the hind end will rest on the 
ground with the bottom boards at an easy slant to roll 
a barrel or milk can into the bottom of the box. Under 
the back end of the cart platform is a good stout bar of 
hardwood framed into the sidepieces. All of the wood- 
work about the cart is well braced with iron. The floor 
of the cart is better when made of narrow matched 
hardwood flooring about seven-eighths of an inch thick 
fastened with bolts. It should be well supported by 
cross pieces underneath. In fact the principal part of 
the box is the underneath part of the frame. 

Sidepieces of the box are wide and are bolted to the 
vertical parts of the axle and braced in different direc- 
tions to keep the frame solid, square and firm. The 
sides of the box are permanently fastened but both 
tailboard and front board are held in place by cleats 



192 FARM MECHANICS 

and rods and are removable so that long scantling or 
lumber may be carried on the cart bottom. The ends 
of the box may be quickly put in place again when it 
is necessary to use them. 

To hold a cart box together, four rods are necessary, 
two across the front and two behind. They are made 
like tailboard rods in wagon boxes. There is always 
some kind of tongue or handle bar in front of the farm 
cart conveniently arranged for either pulling or push- 




Figure 168. — Farm Cart. The axle need not be heavier than %". 
The hind axle of a light buggy works the best. It is bent down and 
spliced and welded under the box. The cart should be made narrow 
to prevent overloading. The box should be low enough to rest the 
back end on the ground at an angle of about 35° for easy loading. 

ing. If a breast bar is used it handles better when sup- 
ported by two curved projecting shafts or pieces of 
bent wood, preferably the bent up extended ends of the 
bedpieces. The handle bar should be about three feet 
from the ground. 

COLT-BREAKING SULKY 

A pair of shafts that look a good deal too long, an 
axle, two wheels and a whiffletree are the principal 
parts of a colt-breaking sulky. The shafts are so long 
that a colt can kick his best without reaching anything 
behind. The principal danger is that he may come 
down with one hind leg over the shaft. It is a question 
with horsemen whether it is better to first start a colt 



FARM CONVEYANCES 193 

alongside of an old, steady horse. But it is generally 
conceded that in no case should a colt be made fast in 
such a way that he could kick himself loose. Different 
farmers have different ideas in regard to training colts, 
but these breaking carts with extra long shafts are very 
much used in some parts of the country. The shafts 
are heavy enough so that the colts may be tied down to 
make kicking impossible. A rope or heavy strap reach- 




Figure 169. — Colt-Breaking Sulky. The axle and hind wheels of 
a light wagon, two strong straight-grained shafts about 4 feet too 
long, a whiffletree and a spring seat are the priDcipal parts of a colt 
breaking sulky. The shafts and seat are thoroughly well bolted and 
clipped to the axle and braced against all possible maneuvers of the 
colt. The traces are made so long that the colt cannot reach any- 
thing to kick, and he is prevented from kicking by a strap reaching 
from one shaft up over his hips and down to the other shaft. In 
this rig the colt is compelled to go ahead because he cannot turn 
around. The axle should be longer than standard to prevent up- 
setting when the colt turns a corner at high speed. 

ing from one shaft to the other over the colt 's hips will 
keep its hind feet pretty close to the ground. Any rig 
used in connection with a colt should be strong enough 
to withstand any strain that the colt may decide to put 
upon it. If the colt breaks something or breaks loose, 
it takes him a long time to forget the scare. Farm boys 
make these breaking carts by using wheels and hind 
axles of a worn-out buggy. This is well enough if the 
wheels are strong and shafts thoroughly bolted and 
braced. It is easy to make a mistake with a colt. To 
prevent accidents it is much better to have the harness 
and wagon amply strong. 



CHAPTER VIII 

MISCELLANEOUS FABM CONVENIENCES 
FARM OFFICE 

Business farming requires an office. Business callers 
feel sensitive about talking farm or live-stock affairs 




Figure 170. — Perspective View of Two-Story Corn Crib. The side of 
the building is cut away to show the elevating machinery. 

before several members of the family. But they are 
quite at ease when alone with the farmer in his office. 
A farm office may be small but it should contain a 

194 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



195 



desk or table, two or three chairs, book shelves for 
books, drawers for government bulletins and a cabinet 
to hold glassware and chemicals for making soil tests 



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3'Concrete floor forcr/tts 



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till — 1—1 — I I I — I I— I I II ■ 



Figure 171. — Floor Plans of Two-Story Corn Crib. The first 
floor shows the driveway with corn cribs at the sides and the 
second floor plan shows the grain bins over the center driveway, 
with location of the downspouts, stairway, etc. 



and a good magnifying glass for examining seeds be- 
fore planting. A good glass is also valuable in tracing 
the destructive work of many kinds of insect pests. 



196 



FARM MECHANICS 



The office is the proper place for making germina- 
tion tests of various farm seeds. Seventy degrees of 
heat is necessary for the best results in seed testing. 
For this reason, as well as for comfort while working, 
the heating problem should receive its share of atten- 




232 Linea 
Feet of Wal 



C.6.B 



-53 L 8"- 
214% Lin. 
Feet of Wall. 



l90 E /fo Lin. 
Feet of Waif. 



Figure 172. — Economy of Round Barn. The diagrams show that 
the popular 36'x80' cow stable and the commonest size of round 
barn have about the same capacity. Each barn will stable forty 
cows, but the round barn has room for a silo in the center. Both 
barns have feed overhead in the shape of hay and straw, but the 
round feed room saves steps. 




Figure 173. — Concrete Farm Scale Base and Pit. 



tion. Many times it so happens that a farmer has a 
few minutes just before mealtime that he could devote 
to office work if the room be warm enough. 

Neatly printed letter-heads and envelopes are im- 
portant. The sheets of paper should be eight and a 
half by eleven inches in size, pure white and of good 
quality. The printing should be plain black and of 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



197 



RIDGE 60ARD .SHOULD LXTEMD 5ACK INTO 
£ARN8fEET. . zu' RATTLR5) 



V2H" COLLAR 5EAM 




mamm> 



Figure 174. — Top View of the Hay-Track Roof Extension, showing 
the ridgeboard and supporting jack-rafters. 



5-Q" 



U1DGE BOAPD 



fl-o" 



HAr-TRAC 




MKGE. 
BOARD u 



Figure 175. — Side view showing plan for building a Hayfork Hood 
to project from peak of a storage barn. The jack-rafters form a 
brace to support the end of the hay-track beam. 



198 



FARM MECHANICS 



round medium-sized letters that may be easily read. 
Fancy lettering and flourishes are out of place on busi- 
ness stationery. 



Detail of 
Door 
Latching 
Mechanism 




Figure 176. — Slaughter House. The house should be twelve feet 
wide. It may be any length to provide storage, but 12x12 makes a 
good beef skinning floor. The windlass shaft should be ten feet 
above the floor, which requires twelve-foot studding. The wheel is 
eight feet in diameter and the winding drum is about ten inches. 
The animal is killed on the incline outside of the building and it lies 
limp against the revolving door. The door catch is sprung back and 
the carcass rolls down onto the concrete skinning floor. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



199 



Halftone illustration of farm animals or buildings 
are better used on separate advertising sheets that may- 
be folded in with the letters when wanted. 




Figure 177. — Rule of Six, Eight and Ten. Diagram showing how 
to stake the foundation of a farm building so the excavation can be 
made clear out to the corners without undermining the stakes. 




Figure 178. — Roof Truss built strong enough to support the roof of 
farm garage without center posts. 



200 



FARM MECHANICS 



Typewriters are so common that a hand-written let- 
ter is seldom seen among business correspondence. A 
busy farmer is not likely to acquire much speed with a 
typewriter, but his son or daughter may. One great 



Ss^A 










^ I L 




8 


m 










\.t* 



Figure 179. — Design of Roof Truss Intended to Span a Farm Garage. 




Figure 180. — Roof Pitches. Mow capacity of the different roof 
pitches is given above the plates in figures. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



201 



advantage is the making of carbon copies. Every let- 
ter received is then filed in a letter case in alphabetical 
order and a carbon copy of each answer is pinned to it 
for future reference. 

The cost of furnishing a farm office will depend upon 
the inclinations of the man. A cheap kitchen table 




Figure 181. — Double Corn Crib. Two cribs may be roofed this 
way as cheaply as to roof the two cribs separately. A storeroom is 
provided overhead and the bracing prevents the cribs from sagging. 

may be used instead of an expensive mahogany desk. 
A new typewriter costs from fifty to ninety dollars, but 
a rebuilt machine that will do good work may be ob- 
tained for twenty. 

A useful magnifying glass with legs may be bought 
for a dollar or two. Or considerable money may be in- 
vested in a high-powered microscope. 



SPEED INDICATOR 

' The speed requirements of machines are given by 
the manufacturers. It is up to the farmer to determine 



202 



FARM MECHANICS 



the size of pulleys and the speed of intermediate shafts 
between his engine and the machine to be driven. A 
speed indicator is held against the end of a shaft at 
the center. The indicator pin then revolves with the 




Figure 182. — Speed Timers. Two styles. The point is held against 
the center of the shaft to be tested. The number of revolutions per 
minute is shown in figures on the face of the dial. The indicator 
is timed to the second hand of a watch. 

shaft and the number of revolutions per minute are 
counted by timing the pointer on the dial with the sec- 
ond hand of a watch. 



^ 




i U 



* 



Figure 183. — Building Bracket. Made of 2x4 pieces put together 
at right angles with diagonal braces* The supporting leg fits be- 
tween the four diagonal braces. 



SOIL TOOLS 

Soil moisture often is the limiting factor in crop 
raising. Soil moisture may be measured by analysis. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



203 





Figure 184. — Diagram showing how to cut a plank on a band- 
saw to form a curved rafter. The two pieces of the plank are spiked 
together as shown in the lower drawing. This makes a curved rafter 
without waste of material. 




Figure 185. — Breeding Crate for Hogs. The illustration shows the 
manner of construction. 



204 



FARM MECHANICS 



The first step is to obtain samples at different depths. 
This is done accurately and quickly with a good soil 
auger. Other paraphernalia is required to make a 



Figure 186. — Soil Auger. Scientific farming demands that soils 
shall be tested for moisture. A long handled auger is used to bring 
samples of soil to the surface. The samples are weighed, the water 
evaporated and the soil reweighed to determine the amount of 
moisture. 




Figure 187. — Post Hole Diggers. Two patterns of the same kind 
of digger are shown. The first has iron handles, the lower has 
wooden handles. 




Figure 188. — Hoes and Weeders. The hang of a hoe affects its 
working. The upper hoe shows about the easiest working angle 
between the blade and the handle. The difference between a hoe and 
a weeder is that the hoe is intended to strike into the ground to 
loosen the soil, while the blade of the weeder is intended to work 
parallel with the surface of the soil to cut young weeds. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



205 



careful analysis of the sample, but a farmer of experi- 
ence will make a mud ball and form a very good esti- 
mate of the amount of water in it. 




Figure 189. — Manure Hook and Potato Diggers. 



H2 



Figure 190. — Spud. Certain vegetables are grown for crop and 
for seed. The green plants are thinned with a spud for sale, leaving 
the best to ripen for seed. It is also used to dig tough weeds, espe- 
cially those having tap roots. 







Figure 191. — (1) Corn Cutting Knife. (2) Asparagus Knife. 



FENCE-MAKING TOOLS 



Sliding Field Gate. — Each farm field should have 
a gate, not necessarily expensive, but it should be 
reasonably convenient. Farm field gates should be 



206 



FARM MECHANICS 




Figure 192. — ,(1) Plumb-Bob and Plumb-Line. The line is paid 
out about 6 feet from the spool and given a half hitch. It may then 
be hung over the wire and the spool will balance the bob. (2) Bipod. 
The legs of a fence bipod are cut 6 feet long. The bolt is put 
through 6 inches from the top ends. By the aid of the plummet the 
upper wire is strung plumb over the barb-wire in the furrow and 
4' 6" above grade. The lower parts of the posts are set against the 
barb-wire and the upper faces of the posts at the top are set even 
with the upper wire. This plan not only places the posts in line, 
both at the top and bottom, but it regulates the height. 



^ 



«" ROUND STEEL 




f SPIKE FOR TWISTING BRACE WIRES 



■7-0' 



SCOOP FOR. REMOVING STONES 



4-0' 



-? OCTAGON STEEL 



CROW-BAR. 



Figure 193. — Fence Tools. The upper tool is a round steel pin to 
twist heavy brace wires. The scoop is for working stones out of 
post-holes. The steel crowbar is for working around the stones to 
loosen them. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 207 

made sixteen feet long, which will allow for a clear 
opening about fourteen feet wide. The cheapest way 
to make a good farm gate is to use a 10-inch board for 
the bottom, 8-inch for the board next to the bottom and 
three 6-inch boards above that. The space between 
the bottom board and next. board is two inches. This 
narrow space prevents hogs from lifting the gate with 
their noses. The spaces widen toward the top, so that 
the gate when finished is five feet high. If colts run the 
fields then a bar is needed along the top of the gate. 
Six cross pieces 1 inch by 6 inches are used to hold 



Figure 194. — Fence Pliers. This is a heavy fence tool made to pull 
fence staples and to stretch, cut and splice wire. 



the gate together. These cross pieces are bolted through 
at each intersection. Also a slanting brace is used on 
the front half of the gate to keep it from racking and 
this brace is put on with bolts. Two posts are set at 
each end of the gate. The front posts hold the front 
end of the gate between them, and the rear posts the 
same. There is a cross piece which reaches from one 
of the rear posts to the other to slide the gate and 
hold it off the ground. A similar cross piece holds the 
front end of the gate up from the ground. Sometimes 
a swivel roller is attached to the rear cross piece to roll 
the gate if it is to be used a good deal. A plain, simple 
sliding gate is all that is necessary for fields some dis- 
tance from the barn. 



208 FARM MECHANICS 



CORN SHOCK HORSE 



A convenient corn shocking horse is made with a 
pole cut from a straight tree. The pole is about six 
inches through at the butt and tapers to' a small end. 
About twenty feet is a good length. There are two legs 
which hold the large end of the pole up about 40" from 
the ground. These legs are well spread apart at the 
bottom. Two feet back from the legs is a horizontal 
hole about one and one-quarter inches in diameter to 
hold the crossbar. This crossbar may be an old broom 




Figure 195. — Corn Horse. When corn is cut by hand there is no 
better shocking device than the old-style corn horse. It is almost as 
handy when setting up the corn sheaves from the corn binder. 

handle. The pole and the crossbar mark the four divi- 
sions of a corn shock. Corn is cut and stood up in each 
corner, usually nine hills in a corner, giving thirty-six 
hills to a shock. Corn planted in rows is counted up to 
make about the same amount of corn to the shock. Of 
course a heavy or light crop must determine the num- 
ber of rows or hills. When enough corn is cut for a 
shock it is tied with two bands, the crossbar is pulled 
out and the corn horse is dragged along to the next 
stand. 

HUSKING-PIN 

Hand huskers for dividing the cornhusks at the tips 
of the ears are made of wood, bone or steel. Wooden 
husking-pins are made of ironwood, eucalyptus, second 
growth hickory, or some other tough hardwood. The 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



209 




Figure 196. — Brick Trowel. 




Figure 197. — Plastering Trowel. 

2' .slope ouKvord 



l : 20 concrete^ 




i<am|>ed cinders or arave) 

Figure 198. — Concrete Hog Wallow, showing drait* pipe. 



l£ 








Figure 199. — Concrete Center Alley for Hog House. The upper- 
illustration represents the wooden template used to form the center 
of the hog house floor. 



210 



FARM MECHANICS 



Si raw To 




Concrete Posts 

Wire Mesh Filled with Straw 1 



Figure 200. — Sanitary Pig-Pen. One of the most satisfactory far- 
rowing houses is constructed of concrete posts 6" square and 6" 
square mesh hog fencing and straw. The posts are set to make far- 
rowing pens 8' wide and 16' deep from front to back. Woven wire 
is stretched and fastened to both sides of the posts at the sides and 
back of each pen. Straw is stuffed in between the two wire nets, 
thus making partitions of straw 6" thick and 42" high. Fence wire 
is stretched over the top and straw piled on deep enough to shed 
rain. The front of the pens face the south and are closed by wooden 
gates. In the spring the pigs are turned out on pasture, the straw 
roof is hauled to the fields for manure and the straw partitions 
burned out. The sun shines into the skeleton pens all summer so 
that all mischievous bacteria are killed and the hog-lice are burned 
or starved. The next fall concrete floors may be laid in the pens, 
the partitions restuffed with straw and covered with another straw 
roof. In a colder climate I would cover the whole top with a straw 
roof. Sufficient ventilation would work through the straw partitions 
and the front gate. In very cold weather add a thin layer of straw 
to the gate. 




Mv^^^^ \ {M ( ^w^^^^M 



---• 



Figure 201. — Concrete Wall Mold. Wooden molds for shaping a 
concrete wall may be made as shown. If the wall is to be low — 2' 
or less — the mold will stay in place without bolting or wiring the 
sides together. The form is made level by first leveling the 2"x6" 
stringers that support the form. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



211 



pin is about four inches long, five-eighths of an inch 
thick and it is shaped like a lead-pencil with a rather 
long point. A recessed girdle is cut around the barrel 
of the pin and a leather finger ring fits into and around 
this girdle. Generally the leather ring fits the larger 




Figure 202. — Husking-Pin. The leather finger ring is looped into the 
recess in the wooden pin. 




Figure 203. — Harness Punch. The hollow punch points are of 
different sizes. 



Figure 204. — Belt Punch. Two or three sizes should be kept in the 
tool box. Belt holes should be small to hold the lace tight. The 
smooth running of belts depends a good deal on the lacing. Holes 
punch better against the end of a hickory block or other fine grained 
hardwood. 



finger to hold the pin in the right position while per- 
mitting it to turn to wear the point all around alike. 
Bone husking-pins are generally flat with a hole 
through the center to hold the leather finger ring. Steel 
husking-pins are shaped differently and have teeth to 
catch and tear the husks apart. 



212 



FARM MECHANICS 



PAINT BRUSHES 

Paint brushes may be left in the paint for a year 
without apparent injury. The paint should be deep 
enough to nearly bury the bristles. Pour a little boiled 
linseed oil over the top to form a skin to keep the air 
out. It is cheaper to buy a new brush than to clean the 
paint out of one that has been used. 




Clove hitch Variable Lashing RunningKnoT 



Figure 205. — 'Knots. The simple principles of knot tying as 
practiced on farms are here represented. 




Figure 206. — Sheepshank, two half hitches in a rope to take up 
slack. The rope may be folded upon itself as many times as neces- 
sary. 




Figure 207. — Marline Spike. Used for splicing ropes, tying rose 
knots, etc. 



FRUIT PICKING 



Apples are handled as carefully as eggs by men 
who understand the business of getting high prices. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 213 

Picking boxes for apples have bothered orchard men 
more than any other part of the business. It is so 
difficult to get help to handle apples without bruising 
that many inventions have been tried to lessen the dam- 
age. In western New York a tray with vertical ends 
and slanting sides has been adopted by grape growers 
as the most convenient tray for grapes. Apple growers 
are adopting the same tray. It is made of three- 



Figure 208. — Fruit-Picking Tray. It is used for picking grapes 
and other fruits. The California lug box has vertical sides and is 
the same size top and bottom. Otherwise the construction is 
similar. 

eighths-inch lumber cut 30 inches long for the sides, 
using two strips for each side. The bottom is 30 inches 
long and three-eighths of an inch thick, made in one 
piece. The ends are seven-eighths of an inch thick cut 
to a bevel so the top edge of the end piece is fourteen 
inches long and the bottom edge is ten inches long. The 
depth of the end piece is eight inches. Hand cleats 
are nailed on the outsides of the end pieces so as to pro- 
ject one-half inch above the top. These cleats not only 
serve to lift and carry the trays, but when they are 
loaded on a wagon the bottoms fit in between the cleats 
to hold them from slipping endways. In piling these 



214 



FARM MECHANICS 



picking boxes empty, one end is slipped outward over 
the cleat until the other end drops down. This permits 
half nesting when the boxes are piled up for storage or 
when loaded on wagons to move to the orchard. 




Figure 209. — Fruit Thinning Nippers. Three styles of apple-stem 
cutters are shown. They are also used for picking grapes and 
other fruits. 



Apples are picked into the trays from the trees. The 
trays are loaded on to wagons or stone-boats and 
hauled to the packing shed, where the apples are rolled 
out gently over the sloping sides of the crates on to the 
cushioned bottom of the sorting table. Orchard men 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 215 

should have crates enough to keep the pickers busy 
without emptying until they are hauled to the packing 
shed. The use of such trays or crates save handling 
the apples over- several times. The less apples are 
handled the fewer bruises are made. 




Figure 210. — Apple Picking Ladder. When apples are picked and 
placed in bushel trays a ladder on wheels with shelves is convenient 
for holding the trays. 

In California similar trays are used, but they have 
straight sides and are called lug boxes. Eastern fruit 
men prefer the sloping sides because they may be 
emptied easily, quickly and gently. 



FRUIT PICKING LADDERS 

Commercial orchards are pruned to keep the bear- 
ing fruit spurs as near the ground as possible, so that 



216 FARM MECHANICS 

ladders used at picking time are not so long as they 
used to be. 

The illustration shows one of the most convenient 
picking ladders. It is a double ladder with shelves to 
hold picking trays supported by two wheels and two 
legs. The wheels which are used to support one side 



Figure 211. — Stepladder and Apple-Picking Bag. This ladder has 
only three feet, but the bottom of the ladder is made wide to pre- 
vent upsetting. This bag is useful when picking scattering apples 
on the outer or upper branches. Picking bags carelessly used are the 
cause of many bruised apples. 




Figure 212. — Tree Pruners. The best made pruners are the 
cheapest. This long handled pruner is made of fine tool steel from 
the cutting parts clear to the outer ends of the wooden handles. A 
positive stop prevents the handles from coming together. Small 
one-hand pruning nippers are made for clean cutting. The blades 
of both pruners should work towards the tree trunk so the hook will 
mash the bark on the discarded portion of the limb. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 217 

of the frame are usually old buggy wheels. A hind 
axle together with the wheels works about right. The 
ladder frame is about eight feet high with ladder steps 
going up from each side. These steps also form the 
support for the shelves. Picking trays or boxes are 
placed on the shelves, so the latter will hold eight or 
ten bushels of apples, and may be wheeled directly to 
the packing shed if the distance is not too great. 

Step-ladders from six to ten feet long are more con- 
venient to get up into the middle of the tree than al- 
most any other kind of ladder. Commercial apple 





Figure 213. — Shears. The first pair is used for sheep shearing. 
The second is intended for cutting grass around the edges of walks 
and flower beds. 

trees have open tops to admit sunshine. For this rea- 
son, straight ladders are not much used. It is neces- 
sary to have ladders built so they will support them- 
selves. Sometimes only one leg is used in front of a 
step-ladder and sometimes ladders are wide at the bot- 
tom and taper to a point at the top. The kind of lad- 
der to use depends upon the size of the trees and the 
manner in which they have been pruned. Usually it 
is better to have several kinds of ladders of different 
sizes and lengths. Pickers then have no occasion to 
wait for each other. 

FEEDING RACKS 

Special racks for the feeding of alfalfa hay to hogs 
are built with slatted sides hinged at the top so they 
will swing in when the hogs crowd their noses through 



218 



FARM MECHANICS 



to get the hay. This movement drops the hay down 
within reach. Alfalfa hay is especially valuable as a 
winter feed for breeding stock. Sows may be wintered 




Figure 214. — Horse Feeding Rack. This is a barnyard hay feeder 
for horses and colts. The diagonal boarding braces each corner post 
and leaves large openings at the sides. Horses shy at small hay 
holes. The top boards and the top rail are 2x4s for strength. The 
bottom is floored to save the chaff. 




Figure 215. — Corner Post Detail of Horse Feeding Rack. A 2x6 
is spiked into the edge of a 2x4, making a corner post 6" across. 
The side boarding is cut even with the corner of the post and the 
open corner is filled with a two-inch quarter-round as shown. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



219 



on alfalfa with one ear of corn a day and come out in 
the spring in fit condition to suckle a fine litter of pigs. 
Alfalfa is a strong protein feed. It furnishes the 




Figure 216. — Automatic Hog Feeder. The little building is 8 ' xl2 ' 
on the ground and it is 10' high to the plates. The crushed grain 
is shoveled in from behind and it feeds down hopper fashion as fast 
as the hogs eat it. The floor is made of matched lumber. It should 
stand on a dry concrete floor. 




Figure 217. — Sheep Feeding Rack. The hay bottom and grain 
trough sides slope together at 45° angles. The boarding is made 
tight to hold chaff and grain from wasting. 

muscle-forming substances necessary . for the young 
litter by causing a copious flow of milk. One ear of 
corn a day is sufficient to keep the sow in good condi- 



220 



FARM MECHANICS 



tion without laying on too much fat. When shoats 
are fed in the winter for fattening, alfalfa hay helps 
them to grow. In connection with grain it increases 
the weight rapidly without adding a great deal of ex- 
pense to the ration. Alfalfa in every instance is in- 
tended as a roughage, as an appetizer and as a protein 
feed. Fat must be added by the use of corn, kaffir corn, 




Figure 218. — Rack Base and Sides. The 2x4s are halved at the 
ends and put together at right angles. These frames are placed 3' 
apart and covered with matched flooring. Light braces should be 
nailed across these frames a few inches up from the ground. The 
1x4 pickets are placed 7" apart in the clear, so the sheep can get 
their heads through to feed. These picketed frames are bolted to 
the base and framed around the top. If the rack is more than 9' 
long there should be a center tie or partition. Twelve feet is a good 
length to make the racks. 

Canada peas, barley or other grains. Alfalfa hay is 
intended to take the place of summer pasture in winter 
more than as a fattening ration. 



SPLIT-LOG ROAD DRAG 

The only low cost road grader of value is the split- 
log road drag. It should be exactly what the name im- 
plies. It should be made from a light log about eight 
inches in diameter split through the middle with a saw. 
Plenty of road drags are made of timbers instead of 
split logs, but the real principle is lost because such 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



221 



drags are too heavy and clumsy. They cannot be 
quickly adjusted to the varying road conditions met 
with while in use. 




Figure 219. — Hog Trough. In a winter hog house the feed trough 
is placed next to the alley or passageway. A cement trough is best. 
A drop gate is hinged over the trough so it can be swung in while 
putting feed in the trough. The same gate is opened up level to 
admit hogs to the pen. 



The illustration shows the right way of making a 
road drag, and the manner in which it is drawn along 
at an angle to the roadway so as to move the earth 
from the sides towards the center, but illustrations are 



222 



FARM MECHANICS 




Figure 220. — Reinforced Hog Trough. The section of hog trough 
to the left is reinforced with chicken wire, one-inch mesh. The 
trough to the right is reinforced with seven y±" rods — three in the 
bottom and two in each side. 




Figure 221. — Double Poultry Feeding Trough with Partition in the 
Center. 




Figure 222. — Poultry Feeder with Metal or Crockery Receptacle. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 223 

useless for showing how to operate them to do good 
work. The eccentricities of a split-log road drag may 
be learned in one lesson by riding it over a mile or two 
of country road shortly after the frost has left the 
ground in the spring of the year. It will be noticed 
that the front half of the road drag presents the flat 
side of the split log to the work of shaving off the lumps 
while the other half log levels and smooths and pud- 




Figure 223. — Split-Log Road Drag. The front edge is shod with 
a steel plate to do the cutting and the round side of the rear log 
grinds the loosened earth fine and presses it into the wagon tracks 
and water holes. 



dies the loosened moist earth by means of the rounded 
side. Puddling makes earth waterproof. The front, 
or cutting edge, is faced with steel. The ridges and 
humps are cut and shoved straight ahead or to one 
side to fill holes and ruts. This is done by the driver, 
who shifts his weight from one end to the other, and 
from front to back of his standing platform to dis- 
tribute the earth to the best advantage. The rounded 
side of the rear half log presses the soft earth into place 
and leaves the surface smooth. 

Unfortunately, the habit of using narrow tired wag- 
ons on country roads has become almost universal in 



224 FARM MECHANICS 

the United States. To add to their destructive propen- 
sities, all wagons in some parts of the country have the 
same width of tread so that each wheel follows in paths 
made by other wheels, until they cut ruts of consider- 
able depth. These little narrow ditches hold water so 
that it cannot run off into the drains at the sides of the 
roadway. When a rut gets started, each passing wheel 
squeezes out the muddy water, or if the wheel be re- 
volving at a speed faster than a walk it throws the 
water, and the water carries part of the roadway with 
it so that small ruts are made large and deep ruts 




Figure 224. — Heavy Breaking Plow, used for road work and other 
tough jobs. 

are made deeper. In some limited sections road rules 
demand that wagons shall have wide tires and have 
shorter front axles, so that with the wide tires and the 
uneven treads the wheels act as rollers instead of rut 
makers. It is difficult to introduce such requirements 
into every farm section. In the meantime the evils of 
narrow tires may be overcome to a certain extent by 
the persistent and proper use of the split-log road drag. 
These drags are most effectual in the springtime when 
the frost is coming out of the ground. During the 
muddy season the roads get worked up into ruts and 
mire holes, which, if taken in time, may be filled by 
running lengthwise of the road with the drag when the 
earth is still soft. When the ground shows dry on top 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 225 

and is still soft and wet underneath is the time the 
drags do the best work by scraping the drier hummocks 
into the low places where the earth settles hard as it 
dries. 

A well rounded, smooth road does not get muddy in 
the summer time. Summer rains usually come with a 
dash. Considerable water falls in a short time, and 
the very act of falling with force first lays the dust, 
then packs the surface. The smooth packed surface 
acts like a roof, and almost before the rain stops falling 
all surface water is drained off to the sides so that an 
inch down under the surface the roadbed is as hard as 
it was before the rain. That is the reason why split log 
road drags used persistently in the spring and occa- 
sionally later in the season will preserve good roads all 
summer. It is very much better to follow each summer 
rain with the road drag, but it is not so necessary as 
immediate attention at the proper time in spring. Be- 
sides, farmers are so busy during the summer months 
that they find it difficult to spend the time. In some 
sections of the middle West one man is hired to do the 
dragging at so much per trip over the road. He makes 
his calculations accordingly and is prepared to do the 
dragging at all seasons when needed. This plan usu- 
ally works out the best because one man then makes it 
his business and he gets paid for the amount of work 
performed. This man should live at the far end of the 
road division so that he can smooth his own pathway 
leading to town. 

STEEL ROAD DRAG 

Manufacturers are making road drags of steel with 
tempered blades adjustable to any angle by simply 
moving the lever until the dog engages in the proper 



226 



FARM MECHANICS 



notch. Some of these machines are made with blades 
reversible, so that the other side can be used for cut- 
ting when the first edge is worn. For summer use the 
steel drag works very well, but it lacks the smoothing 
action of a well balanced log drag. 

SEED HOUSE AND BARN TRUCKS 

Bag trucks for handling bags of grain and seeds 
should be heavy. Bag truck wheels should be eight 
inches in diameter with a three-inch face. The steel 




Figure 225. — Barn Trucks. The platform truck is made to move 
boxed apples and other fruit. The bag truck is well proportioned 
and strong, but is not full ironed. 



bar or shoe that lifts and carries the bag should be 
twenty-two inches in length. That means that the bot- 
tom of the truck in front is twenty-two inches wide. 
The wheels run behind this bar so the hubs do not pro- 
ject to catch against standing bags or door frames. The 
length of truck handles from the steel lift bar to the 
top end of the hand crook is four feet, six inches. In 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



227 



buying bag trucks it is better to get the heavy solid 
kind that will not upset. The light ones are a great 
nuisance when running them over uneven floors. The 




Figure 226. — Farm Gate Post with Copper Mail Box. 



wheels are too narrow and too close together and the 
trucks tip over under slight provocation. Platform 
trucks for use in moving boxes of apples or crates of 



228 



FARM MECHANICS 



potatoes or bags of seed in the seed house or warehouse 
also should be heavy. The most approved platform 
truck, the kind that market men use, is made with a 
frame four feet in length by two feet in width. The 
frame is made of good solid hardwood put together 




Figure 227. — Concrete Post Supporting a Waterproof Clothes Line 
Reel Box. 



with mortise and tenon. The cross pieces or stiles 
are three-quarters of an inch lower than the side pieces 
or rails, which space is filled with hardwood flooring 
boards firmly bolted to the cross pieces so they come up 
flush with the side timbers. The top of the platform 
should be sixteen inches up from the floor. There are 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



229 



two standards in front which carry a wooden crossbar 
over the front end of the truck. This crossbar is used 
for a handle to push or pull the truck. The height of 
the handle-bar from the floor is three feet. Rear wheels 
are five inches in diameter and work 
on a swivel so they turn in any direc- 
tion like a castor. The two front 
wheels carry the main weight. They 
are twelve inches in diameter with a 
three-inch face. The wheels are bored 
to fit a one-inch steel axle and have 
wide boxings bolted to the main tim- 
bers of the truck frame. Like the 
two-wheel bag truck, the wheels of 
the platform truck are under the 
frame so they do not project out in 
the way, which is a great advantage 
when the truck is being used in a 
crowded place. 




-rtr 




Figure 228.— 
Dumb Waiter. The 
cage is poised by a 
counterweight. It 
is guided by a rope 
belt which runs on 
grooved pulleys at 
the top and bottom. 



HOME CANNING OUTFIT 

There are small canning outfits 
manufactured and sold for farm use 
that work on the factory principle. 
For canning vegetables, the heating is 
done under pressure because a great 
deal of heat is necessary to destroy 
the bacteria that spoil vegetables in the cans. Steam 
under pressure is a good deal hotter than boiling water. 
There is considerable work in using a canning outfit,, 
but it gets the canning out of the way quickly. Extra 
help may be employed for a few days to do the canning 
on the same principle that farmers employ extra help 
at threshing time and do it all up at once. Of course, 



230 



FARM MECHANICS 



fruits and vegetables keep coming along at different 
times in the summer, but the fall fruit canning may 
be done at two or three sittings arranged a week or two 




W 2 * 



Figure 229. — Clothes Line Tightener. This device is made of No. 
wire bent as shown in the illustration. 




Figure 230. — Goat Stall. Milch goats are milked on a raised 
platform. Feed is placed in the manger. The opening in the side 
of the manger is a stanchion to hold them steady. 



apart and enough fruit packed away in the cellar to 
last a big family a whole year. Canning machinery is 
simple and inexpensive. These outfits may be bought 
from $10 up. Probably a $20 or $25 canner would 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



231 



be large enough for a large family, or a dozen dif- 
ferent families if it could be run on a co-operative 
plan. 




Figure 231. — Horse Clippers. Hand clippers are shown to the 
left. The flexible shaft clipper to the right may be turned by hand 
for clipping a few horses or shearing a few sheep, but for real busi- 
ness it should be driven by an electric motor. 



ELECTRIC TOWEL 



The ' ' air towel ' ' is sanitary, as well as an economical 
method of drying the hands. A foot pedal closes a quick- 



232 FARM MECHANICS 

acting switch, thereby putting into operation a blower 
that forces air through an electric heating devise so 
arranged as to distribute the warmed air to all parts 
of the hands at the same time. The supply of hot air 
continues as long as the foot pedal is depressed. The 
hands are thoroughly dried in thirty seconds. 

, STALLS FOR MILCH GOATS 

Milch goats are not fastened with stanchions like 
cows. The front of the manger is boarded tight with 
the exception of a round hole about two feet high and 
a slit in the boards reaching from the round opening to 




Figure 232. — Hog Catching Hook. The wooden handle fits loosely 
into the iron socket. As soon as the hog's hind leg is engaged the 
wooden handle is removed and the rope held taut. 

within a few inches of the floor. The round hole is 
made large enough so that the goat puts her head 
through to reach the feed, and the slit is narrow enough 
so she cannot back up to pull the feed out into the stall. 
This is a device to save fodder. 

STABLE HELPS • 

Overhead tracks have made feed carriers possible. 
Litter or feed carriers and manure carriers run on the 
same kind of a track, the only difference is in size and 
shape of the car and the manner in which the contents 
are unloaded. Manure carriers and litter carriers have 
a continuous track that runs along over the manure 
gutters and overhead lengthwise of the feed alleys. 
There are a number of different kinds of carriers man- 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



233 



ufactured, all of which seem to do good service. The 
object is to save labor in doing the necessary work 
about dairy stables. To get the greatest possible profit 
from cows, it is absolutely necessary that the stable 



Figure 233. — Bull Nose-Chain. Cross bulls may be turned out to 
pasture with some degree of safety by snapping a chain like this 
into the nose-ring. The chain should be just long enough to swing 
and wrap around the bull's front legs when he is running. Also the 
length is intended to drag the ring where he will step on it with 
his front feet. There is some danger of pulling the nose ring out. 




Figure 234. — Manure Carriers. There are two kinds of manure 
carriers in general use. The principal difference is the elevator 
attachment for hoisting when the spreader stands too high for the 
usual level dump. 



should be kept clean and sanitary, also that the cows 
shall be properly fed several times a day. Different 
kinds of feed are given at the different feeding periods. 
It is impossible to have all the different kinds of food 
stored in sufficient quantities within easy reach of the 
cows. Hence, the necessity of installing some mechani- 



234 



FARM MECHANICS 



cal arrangement to fetch and carry. The only floor 
carrier in use in dairy stables is a truck for silage. 
Not in every stable is this the case. Sometimes a feed 
carrier is run directly to the silo. It 
depends a good deal on the floor what 
kind of a carrier is best for silage. 
The advantage of an overhead track 
is that it is always free from litter. 
Where floor trucks are used, it is 
necessary to keep the floor bare of 
obstruction. This is not considered 
a disadvantage because the floor 
should be kept clean anyway. 

HOUSE PLUMBING 

When water is pumped by an en- 
gine and stored for use in a tank to 
be delivered under pressure in the 
house, then the additional cost of hot 
and cold water and the necessary sink 
and bath room fixtures is compara- 
tively small. Modern plumbing fix- 
tures fit so perfectly and go together 
so easily that the cost of installing 
house plumbing in the country has 
been materially reduced, while the 
dangers from noxious gases have been 
entirely eliminated. Open ventilator 
pipes carry the poisonous gases up 
through the roof of the house to float harmlessly away 
in the atmosphere. Septic tanks take care of the sew- 
erage better than the sewer systems in some towns. 
Plumbing fixtures may be cheap or expensive, accord- 
ing to the wishes and pocketbook of the owner. The 




Figure 235. — Cow 
Stanchion. Wooden 
cow stanchions 
may be made as 
comfortable for the 
cows as the iron 
ones. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



235 



cheaper grades are just as useful, but there are expen- 
sive outfits that are very much more ornamental. 



FARM SEPTIC TANK 



Supplying water under pressure in the farmhouse 
demands a septic tank to get rid of the waste. A septic 
tank is a scientific receptacle to take the poison out of 



&L4SS 



Figure 236. — Frame for Holding Record Sheets in a Dairy Stable. 




Figure 237. — Loading Shute for Hogs. This loading shute is made 
portable and may be moved like a wheelbarrow. 



sewerage. It is a simple affair consisting of two under- 
ground compartments, made water-tight, with a sewer 
pipe to lead the waste water from the house into the 
first compartment and a drain to carry the denatured 
sewerage away from the second compartment. The 
first compartment is open to the atmosphere, through a* 
ventilator, but the second compartment is made as 



236 



FARM MECHANICS 



nearly air- tight as possible. The scientific working of a 
septic tank depends upon the destructive work of two 
kinds of microscopic life known as aerobic and anarobic 
forms of bacteria. Sewerage in the first tank is worked 
over by aerobic bacteria, the kind that require a small 
amount of oxygen in order to live and carry on their 





Figure 238. — Brass Valves. Two kinds of globe valves are used in 
farm waterworks. The straight valve shown to the left and the 
right angle valve to the right. Either one may be fitted with a long 
shank to reach above ground when pipes are laid deep to prevent 
freezing. 

work. The second compartment is inhabited by anaero- 
bic bacteria, or forms of microscopic life that work 
practically without air. The principles of construc- 
tion require that a septic tank shall be large enough to 
contain two days' supply of sewerage in each compart- 
ment; thus, requiring four days for the sewerage to 
enter and leave the tank. 

Estimating 75 gallons daily of sewerage for each in- 
habitant of the house and four persons to a family, the 
septic tank should be large enough to hold 600 gallons, 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 



237 



three hundred gallons in each compartment, which 
would require a tank about four feet in width and six 
feet in length and four feet in depth. These figures 
embrace more cubic feet of tank than necessary to meet 
the foregoing requirements. It is a good plan to leave 
a margin of safety. 

It is usual to lay a vitrified sewer, four inches in 
diameter, from below the bottom of the cellar to the 







^f^^^^^^^^^^^^^w^^^^^^^^^w^^^^f^ '/*} 



Figure 239. — Septic Tank, a double antiseptic process for purifying 
sewerage. 

septic tank, giving it a fall of one-eighth inch in ten 
feet. The sewer enters the tank at the top of the stand- 
ing liquid and delivers the fresh sewerage from the 
house through an elbow and a leg of pipe that reaches 
to within about six inches of the bottom of the tank. 
The reason for this is to admit fresh sewerage without 
disturbing the scum on the surface of the liquid in the 
tank. The scum is a protection for the bacteria. It 
helps them to carry on their work of destruction. The 
same principle applies to the second compartment. 
The liquid from the first compartment is carried over 
into the second compartment by means of a bent pipe 



238 FARM MECHANICS 

in the form of a siphon which fills up gradually and 
empties automatically when the liquid in the first com- 
partment rises to a certain level. The discharging 
siphon leg should be the shortest. The liquid from the 
second compartment is discharged into the drain in the 
same manner. There are special valves made for the 
final discharge, but they are not necessary. The bot- 
tom of the tank is dug deep enough to hold sewerage 
from two to four feet in depth. The top surface of the 
liquid in the tank is held down to a level of at least six 
inches below the bottom of the cellar. So there is no 
possible chance of the house sewer filling and backing 
up towards the house. Usually the vitrified sewer pipe 
is four inches in diameter, the septic tank siphons for 
a small tank are three inches in diameter and the final 
discharge pipe is three inches in diameter, with a rapid 
fall for the first ten feet after leaving the tank. 

Septic tanks should be made of concrete, water- 
proofed on the inside to prevent the possibility of seep- 
age. Septic tank tops are made of reinforced concrete 
with manhole openings. Also the manhole covers are 
made of reinforced concrete, either beveled to fit the 
openings or made considerably larger than the open- 
ing, so that they sit down flat on the top surface of the 
tank. These covers are always deep enough down in 
the ground so that when covered over the earth holds 
them in place. 

In laying vitrified sewer it is absolutely necessary to 
calk each joint with okum or lead, or okum reinforced 
with cement. It is almost impossible to make a joint 
tight with cement alone, although it can be done by an 
expert. Each length of the sewer pipe should be given 
a uniform grade. The vitrified sewer is trapped out- 
side of the building with an ordinary S-trap ventilated, 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 239 

which leaves the sewer open to the atmosphere and pre- 
vents the possibility of back-pressure that might drive 
the poisonous gases from the decomposing sewerage 
through the sewer back into the house. In this way, the 
septic tank is made entirely separate from the house 
plumbing, except that the two systems are connected at 
this outside trap. 

It is sometimes recommended that the waste water 
from the second compartment shall be distributed 
through a series of drains made with three-inch or 
four-inch drain tile and that the outlet of this set of 
drains shall empty into or connect with a regularly 
organized field drainage system. Generally speaking, 
the final discharge of liquid from a septic tank that is 
properly constructed is inoffensive and harmless. How- 
ever, it is better to use every possible precaution to pre- 
serve the health of the family, and it is better to dis- 
pose of the final waste in such a way as to prevent any 
farm animal from drinking it. 

While manholes are built into septic tanks for the 
purpose of examination, in practice they are seldom 
required. If the tanks are properly built and rightly 
proportioned to the sewerage requirements they will 
take care of the waste water from the house year after 
year without attention. Should any accidents occur, 
they are more likely to be caused by a leakage in the 
vitrified sewer than from any other cause. Manufac- 
turers of plumbing supplies furnish the siphons to- 
gether with instructions for placing them properly in 
the concrete walls. Some firms supply advertising 
matter from which to work out the actual size and pro- 
portions of the different compartments and all connec- 
tions. The making of a septic tank is simple when the 
principle is once understood. 



INDEX 

PAGE 

Acetylene gas 129 

Air pressure pump 107 

Anvil 33 

Apple-picking bag 216 

ladder 215 

Asparagus knife 205 

Auger, ship 26 

Auger-bit 24, 25 

Automatic hog feeder 219 

Axles, wagon 52 

Babbitting boxings 73 

Barn trucks 226 

Belt punch 211 

work 146 

Bench and vise 34 

Bench for iron work 35 

for woodworking 16 

Bipod 206 

Bits, extension boring 26 

Bit, twist-drill, for wood-boring 25 

Blacksmith hammers 61 

shop • 31 

Block and tackle 77 

Bobsleigh's 188 

Boiler, steam '. 90 

Bolster spring 186 

stake 187 

Bolt cutter 45 

Bolts, carriage and machine 56 

emergency 53 

home-made 52 

plow and sickle bar 56 

Boxings, babbitting 73 

Brace, wagon-box 58 

Bramble hook 20 

Brass valves 236 

Breeding crate for hogs 203 

Brick trowel . 209 

241 



242 INDEX 

PAGE 

Bridge auger 26 

Bucket yoke 75 

Buck rake 165 

Building bracket 202 

Bull nose-chain 233 

treadmill 81 

Cable hay stacker . 176 

California hay ricker 176 

Calipers 43 

Caliper rule 14 

Canning outfit ' 229 

Carpenter's bench , 17 

trestle 17 

Cart, two-wheel 191 

Centrifugal pumps 105 

Chain, logging 50 

Chisels and gouges 28 

Circular saw, filing 69 

jointing 68 

setting 68 

Clearing land by tractor 146 

Clevises, plow 58 

Clod crusher 155 

Clothes line reel box, concrete 228 

Clothes line tightener 230 

Cold-chisel 37 

Colt-breaking sulkey 192 

Compasses 18 

Concrete center alley for hog house 209 

farm scale base and pit 196 

hog wallow 209 

wall mold 210 

Conveniences, miscellaneous farm 194 

Conveyances, farm 179 

Corn crib, double 201 

two-story 194 

Corn cultivator 142 

planter 158 

shock horse 208 

Cotter pin tool 44 

Coulter clamp 54 

Countersink 41 

Cow stanchion 234 

Crop machinery, special 161 

Crops, kind of, to irrigate 118 

Crowbars 46 



INDEX 243 

PAGE 

Cultivator, combination 143 

corn 142 

Cutting nippers 46 

Derrick fork 168 

Dies and taps 55 

Diggers, potato 205 

Disk harrow 152 

plow 137 

Dog churn , 79 

power 80 

Draw-filing 62 

Drawing-knife 22 

Drill, grain , 160 

power post 38 

Drill-press 39 

electric 40 

Driven machines 100 

Dumbwaiter 229 

Economy of plowing by tractor 146 

Electricity on the farm 121, 127 

Electric lighting : 123 

Electric power plant 122 

towel 231 

Elevating machinery 133 

Elevator, grain 134 

Emery grinders 31 

Engine and truck, portable 94 

Engine, gasoline 91 

kerosene 92 

steam 90 

Eveners for three- and four -horse teams 139 

Extension boring bits 26 

Farm conveniences 194 

conveyances 179 

office 194 

shop and implement house 9 

shop work . 50 

tractor 97 

waterworks 89, 100 

Feed crusher 131 

Feeding racks 217 

Fence-making tools 205, 206 

Fence pliers 207 

File handle 36 

Files and rasps 36 



INDEX 

PAGE 

Filing hand saw 56 

roll 63 

FlaH 75 

Fore-plane .' 27 

Forge 32 

Forges, portable 32 

Forging iron and steel 59 

Fruit picking 212 

ladders '. 215 

tray 213 

Fruit-thinning nippers 214 

Gambrel whiffletree 173 

Garage 10 

Garden weeder 54 

Gas, acetylene . 129 

Gasoline engine 91 

house lightning 128 

Gate, sliding field 205 

Gatepost with copper mailbox 227 

Gauge, double-marking 22 

Generating mechanical power 74 

Goat stall 230 

Grain drill 160 

elevator 134 

elevator, portable 135 

Grass hook 163 

Grindstone 28 

Hacksaw 45 

Hammers, blacksmith 61 

machinist 's 42 

Hand axe 23 

Hand saw 19, 65 

filing 66 

jointing 65 

setting 65 

using 67 

Handspike 24 

Hardy 43 

Harness punch 211 

Harrow cart 154 

disk 152 

sled 141 

spike-tooth 141 

Harvesting by tractor 146 

Hay carrier carriage 172 

Hay crop, handling 163 



INDEX 245 

PAGE 

Hay derricks, Idaho 171 

Western 169 

Hayf ord, double harpoon 169 

grapple 170 

hitch 173 

hood 197 

Hayrake, revolving 163 

Hay ricker, California 176 

Hay rope pulleys 174 

Hay skids 167 

Hay sling , 167 

Hay stacker, cable ' 176 

Haystack knife : 168 

Hay-tedder 165 

Hay-track roof extension 197 

Hoe, how to sharpen 70 

wheel 162 

Hoes and weeders 204 

Hog catching hook 232 

Hog feeder, automatic 219 

trough 221 

trough, re-inforced 222 

wallow, concrete 209 

Hoist, oldest farm 133 

Hoists 78 

Home repair work, profitable 50 

Horse clippers . , 231 

Horse feeding rack 218 

Horsepower 86 

House plumbing 234 

Husking-pin 208 

Hydraulic ram 95 

Idaho hay derricks » 171 

Implement shed 10 

" shed and work shop 12 

Iron, forging 59 

Irons for neckyoke and whiffletree 51 

Iron roller 157 

Iron working tools 42 

Irrigation 112 

by pumping 112 

overhead spray 116 

Jointer, carpenter 's 27 

Jointer plows 144 

Jointing hand saw 65 

Kerosene engine 92 



246 INDEX 

PAGE 

Keyhole saw 20 

Knif e, asparagus 205 

corn cutting • 205 

haystack 168 

Knots 212 

Lag screw 57 

Land float 156 

Level, carpenter 's 24 

iron stock 25 

Lighting, gasoline 128 

Linchpin farm wagons 185 

Link, cold-shut 43 

plow 58 

Loading chute for hogs 235 

Logging chain 50 

Machines, driven 100 

Machinist 's hammers :..... 42 

vise 47 

Manure carriers 233 

Marline spike 212 

Measuring mechanical work 14 

Mechanical power, generating 74 

Mechanics of plowing 138 

Melting ladle 73 

Monkey-wrench 19 

Mule pump 84 

Nail hammers 21 

Nail set 37 

Office, farm 194 

Oilstone 15 

Overhead spray irrigation 116 

Oxen 181 

Paint brushes 212 

Pea guard 168 

Picking fruit 212 

Pig-pen, sanitary 210 

Pincers 44 

Pipe cutter 48 

Pipe-fitting tools 46 

Pipe vise 47 

wrench 48 

Plastering trowel 209 

Pliers 18 

Plow, heavy -breaking 224 

riding 140 

walking 138 



INDEX 247 

PAGE 

Plowing by tractor 145 

importance of 137 

mechanics of ; 138 

Plows, jointer 144 

Scotch 143 

Plumb-bob and plumb-line 206 

Plumbing, house 234 

Pod-bit 25 

Portable farm engine 94 

Post-hole diggers 204 

Poultry feeding trough 222 

Power conveyor 121 

Power, generating mechanical 75 

Power post drill 38 

Power transmission 120 

Pulverizers 155 

Pump, air pressure 107 

centrifugal 105 

mule 84 

jack 109 

jacks and speed jacks Ill 

rotary 103 

suction 101 

Punches 37 

Quantity of water to use in irrigation 118 

Backs, feeding 217 

sheep feeding 219 

Eafter grapple 173 

Easp 35 

Easps and files 36 

Eatchet-brace 40 

Eef rigeration 123 

Eeservoir for supplying water to farm buildings 120 

Eevolving hayrake 163 

Eiding plow 140 

Eipsaw 21 

Eivets 53 

Eivet set 54 

Eoad drag, split-log 220 

steel 225 

Eoad work 146 

Eoller 156 

Eoll filing 63 

Eoof pitches 200 

truss 199 

Eoot pulper 130 



248 INDEX 

PAGE 

Kotary pumps 103 

Bound barn, economy of 196 

Eule of six, eight and ten 199 

Sand bands 187 

caps 188 

Sanitary pig-pen 210 

Saw, hack 45 

Scotch plows 143 

Screwdriver 23 

ratchet 24 

Seed house trucks 226 

Septic tank 235 

Set-screws 64 

Shave horse 18 

Shears 217 

Sheep feeding rack 219 

Sheepshank 212 

Ship auger 26 

Shoeing horses 71 

knife 34 

tool box 34 

Shop, garage and implement shed 10 

Shop tools 14 

Slaughter house 198 

Sliding field gate 205 

Snips, sheet metal 25 

Soil auger 204 

tools 202 

Soil, working the. 137 

Speed indicator 201 

jacks Ill 

Split-log road drag 220 

Spud , . 205 

Stable helps 232 

Stall for milch goats 232 

Steam boiler and engine 90 

Steel, forging 59 

road drag 225 

square 22 

tools, making 60 

Stepladder 216 

Stock for dies 55 

Stone-boat 179 

Stump puller ' 131 

Suction pumps 101 



INDEX 249 

PAGE 

Sulkey, colt-breaking 192 

S wrenches 44 

Tapeline 15 

Taper reamer 41 

tap 56 

Taps and dies 55 

Tempering steel tools 60 

Tongs 43 

Tool box for field use 72 

handy 72 

Tool rack, blacksmith 34 

Tools for fence-making. 205 

for woodworking 19 

for working iron 42 

pipe-fitting 46 

soil 202 

Tractor economy . 146 

farm 97 

transmission gear 98 

used in plowing 145 

uses for, on farm 146 

Tram points 40 

Travoy 183 

Treadmill, bull 81 

Tree pruners 216 

Trowel, brick 209 

plastering 209 

Trucks, barn 226 

Try-square 22 

Twist-drills 25, 41 

U bolt in cement 57 

Uses of electricity on farm 126 

Valves, brass 236 

Vise 38 

Wagon-box irons 57 

Wagon brakes 186 

seat spring 187 

Walking plow 138 

Water-power 88 

Water storage 100 

Waterworks, farm 100 

Well sweep 76 

Wheelbarrow 180 

Wheel hoe 162 

Winches 79 

Windmills 83 



250 INDEX 

PAGE 

Wire splice 52 

splicer 44 

stretcher 77 

Wooden clamp 18 

roller 157 

Wood-saw frames 129 

Woodworking bench 16 

tools 19 

Working the soil 137 

Wrecking bar ...,,,,....,,,,,,,,..< 24 



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Electrical Tables and Engineering 

Data - *Lea. $1.50 

Electrical Tables and Engineering 

Data *Cloth 1.00 

Motion Picture Operation *Lea. 1.50 

Motion Picture Operation * Cloth 1.00 

Alternating Current Lea. ' 1.50 

Alternating Current Cloth 1.00 

Wiring Diagrams and Descrip- 
tions *Lea. 1.50 

Wiring Diagrams and Descrip- 
tions *Cloth 1.00 

Armature and Magnet Winding. .*Lea. 1.50 

Armature and Magnet Winding. .* Cloth 1.00 

Modern Electric Illumination *Lea. 1.50 

Modern Electric Illumination *Cloth 1.00 

Modern Electrical Construction . . *Lea. 1.50 
Modern Electrical Construction. .* Cloth 1.00 
Electricians' Operating and Test- 
ing Manual *Lea. 1.50 

Electricians' Operating and Test- 
ing Manual *Cloth 1.00 

Drake's Electrical Dictionary Lea. 1.50 

Drake's Electrical Dictionary Cloth 1.00 

Electric Motors, Direct and Alter- 
nating *Lea. 1.50 

Electric Motors, Direct and Alter- 
nating *Cloth 1.00 

Electrical Measurements and Me- 
ter Testing Lea. 1.50 



L 



NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked 11 



_y 



r 

DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS 


♦Title 


I Style 


Price 


Electrical Books — Continued 




Electrical Measurements and Me- 






ter Testing • 


Cloth $1.00 


Drake's Telephone Handbook. . . . 


Lea. 


1.50 


Drake's Telephone Handbook. . . . 


Cloth 


1.00 


Elementary Electricity, Up-to- 
Date 


*Cloth 


1.25 


Electricity Made Simple. .'. 


*Cloth 


1.00 


Easy Electrical Experiments 


*Cloth 


1.00 


Wireless Telegraph and Telephone 
Handbook Cloth 


1.00 


Telegraphy, Self-taught 


Cloth 


1.00 


Dynamo-Electric Machines 


Cloth 


1.50 


Electro-Plating Handbook 


Lea. 


1.50 


Electro-Plating Handbook 


Cloth 


1.00 


Modern American Telephony. . . . 


Lea. 


2.00 


Handy Yest-Pocket Electrical Dic- 
tionary 


Lea. 


.50 


Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dic- 
tionary 


Cloth 


.25 


Storage Batteries 


Cloth 


.50 


Elevators — Hydraulic and Electric Cloth 


1.00 


How to Become a Successful Mo- 






torman 


Lea. 


1.50 


Motorman's Practical Air Brake 
Instructor 


Lea. 


1.50 


Electric Railway Troubles 


Cloth 


1.50 


Electric Power Stations 


Cloth 


2.50 


Electrical Railroading 


Lea. 

s are ma 


3.50 


NOTE. — New Books and Revised Edition 


rked* 



DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS 

♦Title | Style | Price 

Automobile Books 

Brookes' Automobile Handbook . . *Lea. $2.00 

Automobile Starting and Light- 
ing *Lea. 1.50 

Automobile Starting and Light- 
ing *Cloth 1.00 

Ford Motor Car and Truck and 

Tractor Attachments *Lea. 1.50 

Ford Motor Car and Truck and 

Tractor Attachments * Cloth 1.00 

Automobile Catechism and Repair 

Manual *Lea. 1.25 

Practical Gas and Oil Engine 

Handbook *Lea. 1.50 

Practical Gas and Oil Engine 

Handbook *Cloth 1.00 

Farm Books 

Farm Buildings, With Plans and 

Descriptions *Cloth $1.00 

Farm Mechanics *Cloth 1.00 

Traction Farming and Traction 

Engineering *Cloth 1.50 

Farm Engines and How to Run 

Them Cloth 1.00 

Shop Practice Books 

Twentieth Century Machine Shop 

Practice Cloth $2.00 

Practical Mechanical Drawing. . . . Cloth 2.00 

Sheet Metal Workers' Manual. . .*Lea. 2.00 

Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cut- 
ting *Lea. 1.50 

Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cut- 
ting *Cloth 1.00 

20th Century Toolsmith and Steel- 
worker Cloth 1.50 

Pattern Making and Foundry 

Practice Lea. 1.50 

Modern Blacksmithing, Horse- 
shoeing and Wagon Making... Cloth 1.00 

NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked* 



f > 
DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS 


*Title | Style | Price 


Steam Engineering Books 




Swingle's Handbook for Steam 




Engineers and Electricians .... *Lea. 


$3.00 


Steam Boilers, Construction, Care 




and Operation *Lea. 


1.50 


Complete Examination Questions 




and Answers for Marine and 




Stationary Engineers *Lea. 


1.50 


Swingle's Catechism of Steam, 




Gas and Electrical Engineering.* Lea. 


1.50 


The Steam Turbine, Its Care and 




Operation Cloth 


1.00 


Calculation of Horse Power Made 




Easy Cloth 


.75 


Railroad Books 




Modern Locomotive Engineering. *Lea. 


$3.00 


Locomotive Fireman's Boiler In- 




structor *Lea. 


1.50 


Locomotive Engine Breakdowns 




and How to Repair Them *Lea. 


1.50 


Operation of Trains and Station 




Work *Lea. 


2.00 


Construction and Maintenance of 




Railway Roadbed and Track. . . Lea. 


2.00 


First, Second and Third Year 




Standard Examination Ques- 




tions and Answers for Locomo- 




tive Firemen *Lea. 


2.00 






Questions and Answers *Lea. 


2.00 


Westinghouse Air Brake System. Cloth 


2.00 


New York Air Brake System .... Cloth 


2.00 






downs Cloth 


1.00 


NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked* 



DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS 

'Title | Style | Price 

Carpentry and Building Books 

Modern Carpentry. Two volumes. Cloth $2.00 

Modern Carpentry. Vol. I Cloth 1.00 

Modern Carpentry. Vol. II Cloth 1.00 

The Steel Square. Two volumes . . Cloth 2.00 

The Steel Square. Vol. I Cloth 1.00 

The Steel Square. Vol. II Cloth 1.00 

A. B. C. of the Steel Square Cloth .50 

Common Sense Stair Building and 

Handrailing Cloth 1.00 

Modern Estimator and Contrac- 
tor's Guide *Cloth 1.50 

Light and Heavy Timber Framing 

Made Easy Cloth 2.00 

Builders' Architectural Drawing 

Self-taught Cloth 2.00 

Easy Steps to Architecture Cloth 1.50 

Five Orders of Architecture Cloth 1.50 

Builders' and Contractors' Guide Cloth 1.50 

Practical Bungalows and Cottages* Cloth 1.00 

Low Cost American Homes *Cloth 1.00 

Practical Cabinet Maker and Fur- 
niture Designer Cloth 2.00 

Practical Wood Carving Cloth 1.50 

Home Furniture Making Cloth .60 

Concretes, Cements, Mortars, Plas- 
ters and Stuccos Cloth 1.50 

Practical Steel Construction Cloth .75 

20th Century Bricklayer and Ma- 
son's Assistant Cloth 1.50 

Practical Bricklaying Self-taught. Cloth 1.00 

Practical Stonemasonry Cloth 1.00 

Practical Up-to-date Plumbing Cloth 1.50 

Hot Water Heating, Steam and 

Gas Fitting Cloth 1.50 

Practical Handbook for Mill- 
wrights Cloth 2.00 

Boat Building for Amateurs Cloth 1.00 



NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked* 



■ — -■'■ "\ 

DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS 


* Title 


| Style | Price 


Painting Books 






Art of Sign Painting 


* Cloth $3 00 


Scene Painting and Bulletin Art. . 


*Cloth 


3.00 


"A Show at" Sho'Cards 


Cloth 


3.00 


Strong's Book of Designs 


*Lea. 


3.00 


Signist's Modern Book of Alpha- 
bets 


Cloth 


1.50 


Amateur Artist 


Cloth 


1.00 


Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 


Cloth 


1.50 


Red Book Series of Trade School 
Manuals — 






1. Exterior Painting, Wood, 
Iron and Brick 


Cloth 


.60 


2. Interior Painting, Water and 
Oil Colors 


Cloth 


.60 


3. Colors 


Cloth 


.60 


4. Graining and Marbling 


Cloth 


.60 


5. Carriage Painting 


Cloth 


.60 


6. The Wood Finisher 


Cloth 


.60 


New Hardwood Finishing 


Cloth 


1.00 


Automobile Painting 


*Cloth 


1.25 


Estimates, Costs and Profits — 
House Painting and Interior 
Decorating 


*Cloth 1.00 

s are marked* 


NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editior 
V 



